3

Eampe 3.4.1

!
A triangle ABC is to be constructed with A = 30°, AB = 6 cm and BC = 5 cm

(a) Show, on the same diagram, two possible triangles that could be formed, labelling the two positions

of C as C and C ′

(b) Find the area of the smaller triangle.

Solution

(a) B The two triangles ABC and ABC ′ both satisfy the conditions

given in the question.

6 cm 5 cm

5 cm

30

A C C

ˆ
(b) Using the sine rule Of the two possible solutions to sin( ACB) = 0.6 itis clear from

! the diagram that the larger angle isrequired.

sin ( A CB) sin 30

6 5

sin 30
!
⇒ sin ( ACB) = × 6 = 0.6 Since sin θ = sin(180 θ )

! ! !
⇒ AC ′ B = 36.869... and ACB = 180 AC ′ B

!
ACB = 180 36.869... = 143.1...
To find the area of the smaller of the two triangles itwill be

necessary to calculate either AC or the angle ABC

!
ABC = 180 30 143.1... = 6.869...

Area = × 6 × 5 × sin (6.869... Make sure you always use the full display on your GDC to

avoid errors due to premature rounding.

= 1.79 cm

Radian meaure

Radians are an alternative angle measure to degrees.

Have your GDC set to radians, and

π radians are equal to 180°

change to degrees only when the

question uses degrees. This means that

• to convert from degrees to radians you multiply by

180

180

• to convert from radians to degrees you multiply by

If measuring the angle of a sector in radians rather than degrees, the

formulae for the length of arc (l) and area of sector (A) are simplified.

1
2

These formulae are given in l = rθ and A = r θ

section AHL 3.7 in the formula book .

minor arc

sector

r
O

major arc

114

/
 3.4 TRIGONOME TRIc f UNcTIONs (AHl)

Eampe 3.4.2

The diagram below shows two concentric circles with centre O and radii 3 cm and 6 cm.

π
!
The points P and Q lie on the larger circle and POQ = θ , where 0 < θ <

(a) Show that the area of the shaded region is 4.5(4 sin θ – θ)

(b) Find the value of θ that maximizes this area.

Solution

(a) Area of triangle POQ = 1

Using area of triangle =

ab sin C

2
1

× 6 × 6 × sin θ = 18 sin θ

1
2

Area of sector = × 3 × θ = 4.5θ Working in radians and using the area of sector formula.

Area of shaded region = 18 sin θ 4.5θ

= 4.5 ( 4 sin θ θ )

(b) 1.318 11... ≈ 1.32 From the GDC – you need to ensure your GDC is in

radian mode. Note the answer could also be found using

⎛ 1 ⎞

differentiation and finding θ = arccos

⎝ ⎠
4

▲ The student has correctly

s AMPlE sTUDENT ANs WER

spotted the length of the rectangle

is equal to the radius, which was

A rectangle is drawn around a sector of a

correctly calculated.

circle as shown. If the angle of the sector is

1 radian and the area of the sector is 7 cm ,

▼ The student has rounded

find the dimensions of the rectangle, giving

incorrectly and used the incorrect

your answers to the nearest millimetre.

rounding in the rest of the

question, leading to the wrong

1
2
answer. You should always write
Let the radius of the circle be r, so 7 = r × 1

2 down a full answer as well as a

r = 14 = 3.741657386
rounded answer and always use

the full answer from the GDC in

So, the length of the rectangle is 3.74 subsequent working.

180

Angle is = 57.3

▼ It would have been easier

180 57.2

x = = 61.4 to stay in radians and calculate x

π − 1

as . In this case the calculator

2
height = 2 × 3.74 cos(61.4) = 3.59 cm

would need to be in radian mode

for the nal calculation.

115

/
3

3 . 5 M AT R I X T R A N S F O R M AT I O N S ( A H L )

You mut know: You houd be abe to:

✔ the order in which to multiply matrices for a ✔ nd the matrix for a given transformation from

compound transformation the formula book or by considering the image

of (1, 0) and (0, 1)

✔ area of image = |detT|× the area of the object

✔ nd the image of a given point under a

✔ if a line makes an angle of α with the x-axis

transformation

then the gradient of the line is tan α

✔ nd the point that has a given image

✔ use iterative techniques to generate a

complex shape.

linear tranormation

A linear transformation can be represented by a 2 × 2 matrix and as

such will always leave the point (0, 0) unchanged.

Examples of linear transformations are rotations about the origin,

reflections in lines passing through the origin, enlargements with the

origin as a centre and horizontal and vertical one-way stretches with

the y-axis or x-axis invariant.

The general form of matrices

You will need to know how to find the matrix representing

representing each of these

a transformation, either by using the form of the general

transformations are in section

matrix given in the formula book or by considering the effect

AHL 3.9 of the formula book .

of the transformation on two points.

Eampe 3.5.1

(a) Find the matrix that represents a reflection in the line y = 2x

(b) Find the matrix that transforms the point (1, 2) to (2, 4) and

Make sure you know how to find (4, 3) to (8, 6)

the angle (α ) between a line and

Solution
the x-axis from its gradient (m)

using m = tan α
(a) m = 2 ⇒ tan θ = 2 ⇒ θ = 63.43... The matrix for a reflection is

given in the formula book but

⎛ cos ( 2 × 63.43...) sin (2 × 63.43...) ⎞

first the value of θ needs to

⎜ ⎟
sin (2 × 63.43...) cos ( 2 × 63.43...)
⎝ ⎠
be found.

⎛ 0.6 0.8 ⎞

⎝ 0.8 0.6 ⎠

(b) Let the transformation matrix Because we are given two

be T points a matrix equation can

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ be formed.
1 4 2 8

T =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
2 3 4 6
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Note that we need to

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ post-multiply both sides by

2 8 1 4

⇒ T =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4 6 2 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ the inverse.

⎛ ⎞
2 0 The final answer is obtained
T =
⎜ ⎟
0 2
⎝ ⎠
directly from the GDC.

116

/
 3.5 M AT R I x T R A N s f O R M AT I O N s (AHl)

The quickest way to find a matrix that represents a reflection in either axis,

the lines y = ±x, or a rotation by a multiple of 90° is to consider the effect on

the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) rather than use the formulae.

If (1, 0) goes to (a, b) and (0, 1) goes to (c, d) then the transformation matrix

⎛ ⎞
a c

is . See Example 3.5.2

⎜ ⎟

b d
⎝ ⎠

compound tranormation

If a point with position vector x undergoes the transformation

represented by matrix R, the image will be Rx. If this point then Make sure you know the

undergoes a transformation represented by matrix S, then the order in which to multiply

image of x after the two transformations is S(Rx) = (SR) x matrices to represent a

From this we can see that the single matrix that represents the compound transformation.

transformation R followed by S is SR

Eampe 3.5.2

(a) Find the single matrix that represents a (b) Show that performing this transformation

reflection in the line y = x followed by a twice will return each point to its

rotation of 90° clockwise. startingposition.

Solution

⎛ ⎞
0 1

(a) Reflection in y = x, Either use the fact that (1, 0) goes to (0, 1) and
⎜ ⎟
1 0
⎝ ⎠

(0, 1) goes to (1, 0) or use the formula in the

⎛ ⎞
0 1
formula book and the fact that y = x makes an

Rotation of 90° clockwise is ⎜ ⎟

1 0
⎝ ⎠
angle of 45° with the x-axis to find the matrix for

the reflection.
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
0 1 0 1

The single matrix is ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

1 0 1 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The rotation matrix is found in a similar way.

Note the order of matrix multiplication used to

⎛ ⎞
1 0

=
⎜ ⎟ find the matrix for the compound transformation.
0 1
⎝ ⎠

Squaring the matrix gives the matrix for

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ performing the transformation twice.

1 0 1 0 1 0

(b) =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
0 1 0 1 0 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞
1 0

=
⎜ ⎟
0 1
⎝ ⎠

Because the compound transformation

results in the identity matrix performing the

transformation twice will return each point to

its starting position.

Aine tranormation

These are transformations of the form x′ = Ax + b where A is a 2 × 2

matrix and b is a 2 × 1 vector and x′ is the image of x. In an affine

transformation x undergoes a linear transformation followed by a

translation.

117

/
3

Eampe 3.5.3

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 1 1

Let the transformation T be defined by x′ = x + , where

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 3 ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

x′ is the image of x under the transformation T

(a) Find the coordinates of the image of (2, 2) under T

(b) Find the coordinates of the point that remains in the same

position when transformed by T

Solution

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 1 2 1 5 2

+ =
(a) , is substituted into the
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Be sure to note if the question

expression.
specifically asks for the
(5, 12)

coordinates of the points. If so,

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 1 a 1 a

+ =
these should be given, not the (b)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 3 b ⎝ 4 ⎠ b
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

position vector.

⎛ ⎞
2a + b 1 ⎛ ⎞
a

⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a + 3b + 4 ⎟ b
⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠

a + b = 1, a + 2b = −4 Form two equations and solve

simultaneously.
a = 6, b = −5

So the coordinates of the

invariant point are (6, 5)

frata and e-imiar hape

Compound shapes can be formed by repeating a transformation first

on an object and then successively on the subsequent images. The final

image is then made up of transformed images of the original shape.

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x x
n n 1

The transformation can be written in the form ⎜ ⎟ = A ⎜ ⎟ + b

⎜ y ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
n n 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

where A is a 2 × 2 matrix and b is a 2 × 1 vector.

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x x
n n 1

⎜ ⎟ is the position vector of ⎜ ⎟ following the transformation.

⎜ y ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
n n 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Eampe 3.5.4

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x ⎛ ⎞ x ⎛ ⎞
n 1 1 n 1 3

A transformation is given by the relation ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ y ⎟ 2 1 ⎜ y ⎟ 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
n n 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x x
2 0

Find an expression for ⎜ ⎟

in the form A ⎜ ⎟ + b

⎜ y ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
2 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Solution

Write down the two

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x ⎛ ⎞ x ⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 0 3

= ⎜ ⎟ + ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
x
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1
⎜ y ⎟ 2 1 ⎜ y ⎟ 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
expressions for and
⎜ y ⎟
1
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x x x
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 1 1 1 3 2

= + ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ using the interative
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
y ⎝ 2 1 ⎠ y 1
⎝ ⎠ 2
2 1 ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ formula, then substitute
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ x ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 0 3 3

⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ ⎟ + +
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
the first expression into
2 1 ⎜ ⎝ 2 1 ⎜ y ⎟ 1 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
0
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

the second.

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ x ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 2 0 2 3

= ⎜ ⎟ + +
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Simplify the right hand
4 1 ⎜ y ⎟ 7 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0
⎝ ⎠

side by multiplying out

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ x ⎛ ⎞
1 2 0 5
the matrices and adding
= ⎜ ⎟ +
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4 1 ⎜ y ⎟ 8
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0
⎝ ⎠
the two vectors.

118

/
 3.5 M AT R I x T R A N s f O R M AT I O N s (AHl)

The area o an image

If an object undergoes a transformation represented by a matrix T then:

This formula is not given in the

The area of the image = |det T|× the area of the object.

formula book so it will need to

be memorized.

Eampe 3.5.5

It is given that sin 45° = cos 45° =

(a) Write down the matrix that represents a 45° anti-clockwise rotation S
2

S
2
1
about (0, 0)
S
3
S
0

A design is created by rotating a triangle five times through 45°

–6 –4 –2 2

anti-clockwise and enlarging it by a factor of 2 each time.

–2

S
This is shown in the diagram. 4

–4

(b) Find the single matrix that will take points in triangle S to points in
0
–6

triangle S
S
1
5

–8

(c) Verify your matrix will take the point (2, 2) onto the corresponding

–10
point in S
1

–12

(d) Find the single matrix that will take points in triangle S to points in
0

triangle S
5

(e) Write down the area of triangle S and hence find the area of –16
0

triangle S
5

Solution

This matrix can be taken from the formula book. It is acceptable

⎛ 1 1 ⎞

to use decimal equivalents, but because the exact forms were

⎜ 2 2 ⎟

(a)

⎜ ⎟ given in the question it might be better to use them.

1 1

⎜ ⎟
2 2
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ On this occasion the same matrix is obtained irrespective of

1 1

⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟

2 0 2 2 ⎛ ⎞ the order.
1 1
⎜ ⎟
(b) ⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 1 1 1 1
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠

⎜ ⎟
2 2
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ From the diagram it is clear that the corresponding point

1 1 2 0

=
(c) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ 1 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4
⎝ ⎠ is (0, 4)

When a transformation is repeated 5 times the single matrix

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4 4 ⎞

(d) =

⎝ 1 1 ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
that will represent that transformation is the original matrix

raised to the power 5.

(e) Area of S = × 2 × 2 = 2 Whenever an area is asked for in a question on matrix

0
2

transformations it is likely that the formula The area of the

⎛ 4 4 ⎞
det = 16 + 16 = 32 image=|det T|× the area of the object will be used.

⎝ 4 4 ⎠

Area = 32 × 2 = 64

119

/
3

3 . 6 V E C T O R S

You houd know: You houd be abe to:

✔ unit vectors; base vectors i, j, k ✔ use algebraic and geometric approaches to

calculate the sum and difference of two vectors,

✔ components of a vector; column representation

multiply by a scalar, nd the magnitude of a

!!!"

✔ position vectors: OA = a
vector |v| from components

✔ vector equation of a line in two and three

✔ nd the resultant as the sum of two or

dimensions
morevectors

!!!
"

✔ the relative position of B from A is AB

✔ convert the vector equation of a line to

parametric form
✔ how to model linear motion with constant

velocity in two and three dimensions

✔ nd the position of an object and the relative

position of two objects moving with constant or

✔ how to model motion with variable velocity in

variable velocity
two dimensions

✔ nd a velocity vector given a speed

✔ how to model projectile and circular motion

anddirection

✔ f (t – a) indicates a time shift of a

✔ nd times and distances when two objects are

✔ the denition and calculation of the scalar

closest to each other

product of two vectors

✔ calculate the angle between two vectors using

✔ the denition and calculation of the vector

v · w = |v||w|cos θ, where θ is the angle

product of two vectors

between two non-zero vectors v and w, and

ascertain whether the vectors are perpendicular

✔ the component of vector a acting in the

aib (v · w = 0)

direction of vector b is =|a|cos θ

✔ use |v × w| to nd the area of a parallelogram

the component of a vector a acting

(and hence a triangle)

perpendicular to vector b, in the plane formed

✔ nd the component of a vector acting in a given

a × b

by the two vectors, is = a sin θ

direction or perpendicular to that direction.
b

Proper tie o etor

A vector represents a quantity which has both magnitude

and direction. The most common vector quantities you

Other quantities such as force,

will meet in the course are the displacement or position

or electric field strength may be

of an object, its velocity and its acceleration.

used in questions but you will not

Vectors can be written as column vectors or in terms of

require any knowledge of these

the base vectors i, j and k

quantities beyond what is given in

the question.
⎛ ⎞
2

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟

is equivalent to 2i j and 1 is equivalent to 2i + j 2k

⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ 2 ⎠

The magnitude of a vector v is the length of v and is written as v .

⎛ v ⎞
1

2 2 2

It is found using the formula v = v + v + v where v = ⎜ v ⎟

2
1 2 3

⎜ ⎟
v
⎝ 3 ⎠

The magnitudes of the two vectors given above are:

This formula is given in section

2 2 2 2 2
AHL 3.10 of the formula book .
2 + ( 1) = 5 and 2 + 1 + ( 2) = 9 =

120

/
 3.6 v E c TO R s

Any vector that is a scalar multiple of another is parallel to it.

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 10 10 2

is parallel to because = 5 . Parallel vectors are

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 5 5 ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

said to have the same direction.

A unit vector has a magnitude of one, hence v is a unit vector in the

same direction as v

⎛ 2 ⎞
1 1
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞

1
and ⎜ ⎟ are unit vectors in the same direction as

5 ⎝ 1 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 1 ⎠

⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ ⎞
2

⎜ ⎟
1
and
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 2 ⎠

The sum of two or more vectors will give the single vector which is

equivalent to the combined effect of the individual vectors. This vector

⎛ ⎞
3

is called the resultant vector. Let the vector u be and the vector v
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 4 ⎠

⎛ ⎞
3

be ⎜ ⎟ . Then:

⎝ 1 ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 3 6

+ =
⎜ ⎟ 3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4 1 5
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

u + v

u
⎛ ⎞
6 4 4

As can be seen in the diagram ⎜ ⎟ is equivalent to a displacement of

5
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 3

⎜ ⎟ followed by ⎜ ⎟
3 3
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

Similarly, if the two vectors represent forces acting on an object then

the resultant effect of the two forces would be the same as a single

⎛ ⎞
6

force of ⎜ ⎟
5
⎝ ⎠

The position vector of a point A is the vector from the origin to A.

!!!"

It is written as OA or often as just a

!!
"

The vector AB = −a + b or b − a

a + b

Eampe 3.6.1

In still water, a boat has a speed of 2 ms and is being steered in the

⎛ ⎞
3

direction .
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 4 ⎠

(a) Find the velocity of the boat as a column vector.

While travelling with the same velocity, the boat enters a section of

⎛ ⎞
0
1

river which is flowing with a velocity of ms .

⎜ ⎟
1.5
⎝ ⎠

(b) Find the velocity of the boat relative to the land, and state

whether it is moving upstream or downstream.

121

/
3

Solution

⎛ ⎞ The velocity is in the same

3

(a) has a magnitude of

⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞
4 3
⎝ ⎠

direction as so must
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 4 ⎠

2 2

3 + ( 4) = 5

be a multiple of it but have a

A unit vector in the same magnitude of 2.

⎛ ⎞
3

direction as is
The required vector will be
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 4 ⎠

2times the unit vector in the

Note 1 ⎛ ⎞
3

therefore ⎛ ⎞
3
⎜ ⎟
5 4
⎝ ⎠ direction .
⎜ ⎟
The speed of an object is equal to 4
⎝ ⎠

The velocity of the boat is

the magnitude of its velocity vector.

therefore

2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 1.2

=
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
5 4 1.6
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ The velocity relative to the land

1.2 0 1.2

(b)
+ =
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1.6 1.5 0.1 is the velocity of the boat plus
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

the velocity of the river.

It is moving upstream.

The 0.1 indicates the boat is

moving upstream.

The aar produt

These formulae are in section

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
AHL 3.13 in the formula book . v w
1 1

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

The scalar (or ’dot’) product of two vectors v = v and w

= w
2 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
v w
3 3
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

is defined as v·w = v w + v w + v w
1 1 2 2 3 3

Additionally v·w = cos where θ is the angle between v and w

This can be rearranged to give a formula for the angle between two

v w + v w + v w
1 1 2 2 3 3

vectors as cos θ =

The main use of the scalar product is to find the angle between two vectors.

If two vectors are perpendicular then their scalar product is equal to 0.

Note Eampe 3.6.2

!
The angle AOB is the angle between A triangle OAB has vertices at (0, 0, 0), (4, 8, 3) and (8, 6, 3)

!!
" !!
"

vectors OA and OB (α ) and not

(a) Find the lengths OA and OB

!!
" !!
"

between vectors AO and OB ( β ). !

(b) Find the angle AOB

(c) Hence find the area of the triangle OAB

!
(d) Show that that angle O AB = 90°.

Solution

2 2 3 OA is equal to the magnitude of

OA

(a) OA = 4 + 8 + 3
!!!"

the vector OA, which is the

α B
OB = 89 ≈ 9.43
O

position vector of A

2 2 2

β
OB = 8 + 6 + 3

AO

= 109 ≈ 10.4

122

/
 3.6 v E c TO R s

4 × 8 + 8 × 6 + 3 × 3
This required angle is the one
!
(b) cos( AOB) =
!!!" !!!
"

89 × 109

between the vectors OA and OB

= 0.9036...

!
AO B ≈ 25.4°

(c) Area = × 89 × 109 Using the formula for area

andthe lengths of sides

sin(25.363...)

alreadyfound.

= 21.0950... ≈ 21.1

⎛ ⎞
4
!!!" !!!"

⎜ ⎟
(d) AO = 8 , This is the angle between AO

⎜ ⎟
!!!
"

3
⎝ ⎠

and AB

!!!
"
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
8 4 4
!!!
"
AB is calculated using
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = 6 8 = 2 !!!
" !!!
" !!!" !!!
"
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

AB = OB OA or AB = b a
3 3 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Using the key fact above if

!!!" !!!
"

AO × AB = 0 the vectors are

perpendicular

!!!" !!!
"

AO × AB = 4 × 4 + 8 × 2 + 3 × 0 = 0

!
Hence O AB = 90°

vetor produt
⎛ ⎞
⎛ v ⎞ w
1 1

⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
The vector (or ’cross’) product of two vectors v = v
and w = w
2 2
⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
v w
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝
3
⎠

⎛ ⎞
v w v w
2 3 3 2

⎜ ⎟

is defined as v × w = v w v w
⎜ 3 1 1 3 ⎟

⎜ ⎟
v w v w
1 2 2 1
⎝ ⎠
It is very easy to make a mistake

Additionally v × w = sin , where θ is the angle between v and w when calculating a vector product.

Make sure you clearly set out

Using the formula for the area of a triangle ab sin C we can see that each step.

the area of the triangle shown is sin θ

The formula book section 3.13

w

Hence the area of the triangle formed by the vectors

has the equivalent formula for the
θ v

v and w is |v × w| area of a parallelogram A = ×

where v and w form two adjacent

sides of the parallelogram.

The direction of the vector product of  and w is perpendicular to both  and w

Eampe 3.6.3

The points A (2.1, 3.5, 4.2), B (3.2, 2.3, 1.4) and A gust of wind strikes the sail perpendicular to its

C(0.8, 3.9, 1.6) lie at the three corners of a sail. surface with a speed of 12 ms

(a) Find the area of the sail. (b) Find the velocity of the wind as a column vector.

!!!
"

Solution
Using the formula AB = b a
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1.1 1.3
!!!
" !!!"

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
(a) AB = , AC =
1.2 0.4

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ The area of the sail is the area of the triangle

2.8 2.6
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ !!!
" !!!"

formedby AB and AC and is equal to

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1.1 1.3 4.24
!!!
" !!!"
!!!
" !!!"
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 1
AB × AC = 1.2 × 0.4 = 6.5
AB × AC
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

2
2.8 2.6 1.12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

123