3

1
2 2 2
As the wind is perpendicular to the sail it is perpendicular to
Area = 4.24 + 6.5 + ( 1.12)

2 !!!
" !!!" !!!
" !!!"

both AB and AC and so has the same direction as AB × AC

= × 7.841... ≈ 3.92

⎛ ⎞
4.24 ⎛ 13.0 ⎞
12 1
⎜ ⎟
(b) 6.5 ≈ 19.9 To find the correct magnitude use v to find the unit vector and
⎜ ⎟
3.92052... ⎜ ⎟ v
⎜ ⎟

⎝ 1.12 ⎠ ⎝ 3.43 ⎠
multiply by 12.

component o etor in a gien diretion

The components of a vector tell you how much of the vector is acting

along each of the base vectors, i, j and k

For example, if a coordinate system is such that i, j and k represent the

directions east, north and vertically up respectively then the velocity

⎛ ⎞
3

⎜ ⎟ 1

vector 1 ms or 3i + j + 0.8k represents a body moving east at

⎜ ⎟

0.8
⎝ ⎠

1 1 1

3 ms , north at 1 ms and is gaining height at 0.8 ms

It is often useful to know how much of a vector is acting in a

given direction.

Let  and w be two vectors and let the angle between them be θ.

i i

The component of w acting in the direction of  is cos θ = =

The component of w acting perpendicular to the direction of  is

θ
× ×

v
sin θ = =

Eampe 3.6.4

An object is moving in the direction of the vector 3i + 2j + 4k.

It is acted on by a force of 7i 2j + 5k Newtons.

Find the component of the force:

(a) in the direction of motion

(b) perpenciular to the motion.

Solution

w i v
(3i + 2 j + 4 k) i (7 i 2 j + 5 k)

(a) using

v
2 2 2

3 + 2 + 4

37

When answering a vector question,

= ≈ 6.87 N

29

you can use either component

form or column form to write

( 3i + 2 j + 4 k) × (7 i 2 j + 5 k)
w × v

(b) using

the vector.
2 2 2
v
3 + 2 + 4

( 18 i 13 j 20 k )
893

= ≈ 5.55 N

29 29

124

/
 3.6 v E c TO R s

The etor equation o a traight ine

The vector equation of a straight line can be written as r = a + λb where a is the

position vector of a point on the line and b is a vector in the direction of the line

and r is the position vector of the point on the line with parameter λ

P
⎛ ⎞
x

⎜ ⎟
y
In three dimensions r represents the vector
⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
z b
⎝ ⎠

The vector equation can be written in parametric form as three

separate equations. For example

⎛ ⎞ a
x ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 3

⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
r = y = 1 + λ 2
can be written as three separate equations:

⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
0 4
z ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠

x = 2 + 3λ , y = 1 2λ , z = 4λ

The angle between two lines is the angle between the direction vectors of

the lines.

Eampe 3.6.5

A chair lift joins an upper station A with A pylon P supports the cable on the chair lift. The

coordinates (80, 35, 40) and a lower station B with top of the pylon makes contact with the line of

coordinates (110, 65, 0). The cable joining A and the cable at a point which is 12 m higher than the

B can be assumed to lie along the straight line position of B

joining A and B

(b) Find the coordinates of P

(a) Find the vector equation of the straight line

(c) Find the angle made by the line of the chair lift

joining A and B

with the horizontal.

Solution

!!!
"

(a) The direction of the line is Using the formula AB = b a

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
110 80 30
!!!
"

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = 65 35 = 30 Any point on the line can be used so

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

0 40 40
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
110 30

Equation of line is
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
is also a possible answer.
r = 65 + λ 30

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
80 30 0 40
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
r = 35 + λ 30

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

40 40
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

(b) z = 12 ⇒ 40 40 = 12 The parametric equations can be used to find the value of

and hence the values of x and y.

⇒ λ = 0.7

x = 80 + 0.7 × 30 = 101

y = 35 + 0.7 × 30 = 56

Coordinates of P are (101, 56, 12)

125

/
3

(c) Direction of horizontal line below the chair The angle between the line of the chair lift and

⎛ ⎞ the horizontal is the angle between the direction

30

⎜ ⎟
lift is 30
vector and the horizontal.
⎜ ⎟

0
⎝ ⎠

Angle between chair lift and

horizontal = θ where

30 × 30 + 30 × 30 + 0 × − 40

cos θ =

2 2 2 2 2

30 + 30 30 + 30 + 40

= 0.7276...

θ ≈ 43.3

K inemati

The position (displacement) of an object moving with constant velocity

will be lie on a straight line of the form r = a + tv.

In this equation r gives the object’s position or displacement at time t,

v is the particle’s velocity and a is the position vector of the object

when t = 0

s AMPlE sTUDENT ANs WER

Distances in this question are in metres.

Ryan and Jack have model airplanes which take off from level

ground. Jack's airplane takes off after Ryan's.

The position of Ryan's airplane t seconds after it takes off is given

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
5 4

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
by r = + t
6 2

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

0 ⎝ 4 ⎠

(a) Find the speed of Ryan's airplane.

(b) Find the height of Ryan's airplane after two seconds.

The position of Jack's airplane s seconds after it takes off is given by

If an object depar ts at time t = t

1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
39 4

rather than t = 0 then the equation ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

r = 44 + s 6

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

becomes r = a + (t − t ) and a is the

0 ⎝ 7 ⎠
1 ⎝ ⎠

object’s position at t = t
1

(c) Show that the paths of the airplanes are perpendicular.

The two airplanes collide at the point ( 23, 20, 28).

▼ The –4 should be in brackets.

Though the nal answer was

(d) How long after Ryan's airplane takes off does

correct it might not be awarded as

Jack's airplane take off? [5]

technically it followed incorrect

working!

2 2 2

(a) Speed = −4 + 2 + 4 = 36 = 6

▼ The student correctly found the

(b) t = 2

displacement of the airplane but

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
did not state that the height is 8 m 5 3

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
r = 6 + 2 2 = 10

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ 0 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

▲ The student took the correct

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
direction vectors. The scalar 4

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
product equaling 0 is sufcient (c) 2 i 6 = − 16 − 12 + 28 = 0

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

explanation to show they are 4 7

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

perpendicular.

126

/
 3.6 v E c TO R s

(d) If Jack's airplane is a second after Ryan's, then:

⎛ 39 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
4

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
r = + (t − a) 6 ▲ The student has correctly used
44

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

7 the formula to move the start time.

⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

time when Ryan's plane gets to (−23, 20, 28) is

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
23 5

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
20 = 6 + t 2 − 23 = 5 − 4t → t = 7 ▲ It is a good idea to check the

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

28 0 4 other coordinates are also satised

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

when t = 7.

Check 20 = 6 + 14

⎛ 39 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ 4
23

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
For Jack ⎜
20
⎟
= + (t −a ) 6
44

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
▼ Unfortunately the student did
28 7
⎝ ⎠ 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

not check their answer here. If they

−23 = −3 + 4(t − a) but t = 7 had, the small error in the last line

16 might have been spotted.

−23 = −39 + 28 − 4a → a = = 4

If at time t object A has position vector r and object B has position vector
A
!!!
"

r then The relative position of B from A is the vector AB = r r

B A
B

!!!
"

Their distance apart is AB = r r

B A

If two objects collide they must be in the same place at the same time.

Eampe 3.6.6

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
21 2

At t hours after 13:00, ship A has position r = + t and

A ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
6 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
7 2

ship B has position r = + t relative to a port, with all

B ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

distances in kilometres.

Note

(a) Show the two ships would collide if they maintained their

velocities and state the time this would occur.

As a velocity is defined by both

speed and direction, it is possible

Ship B changes its velocity so it is travelling on a bearing of 045°

for the velocity to change while the

with the same speed.

speed remains constant.

(b) Find the shortest distance between the two ships.

Solution

(a) The ships will have the same x-coordinate Having found t, an alternative method is to solve for y

when 21 2t = 7 + 2t ⇒ t = 3.5 and see if this also gives t = 3.5

Substituting into both equations gives

⎛ ⎞
14

r = r = , hence collide
A B ⎜ ⎟
13
⎝ ⎠

Time of collision 16:30

(b) Magnitude of the velocity of B is The speed of B is the magnitude of its velocity.

2 2 ⎛ ⎞
1
2 + 4 = 20 A bearing of 045° is in the direction of the vector

⎜ ⎟

⎝ 1 ⎠

20 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 1

New velocity of B is = 10 or
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1
2 ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
To find a vector with the correct magnitude use v

⎛ ⎞
3.162...
tofind the unit vector and multiply by 20

⎜ ⎟
3.162...
⎝ ⎠

127

/
3

!!!
"

d = AB = r r
B A

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
7 10 21 2

= + t ⎜ ⎟ + t
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
1 ⎜ ⎟ 6 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
10
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ Simplify r r as much as possible before finding an
14 + (2 + 10 ) t 14 + 5.16t
B A

⎜ ⎟
= ≈ ⎜ ⎟

expression for the magnitude.

⎜ 7 + 1.16t ⎟
⎜ ⎟
7 + ( 2 + 10 ) t
⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠

This last stage is done on the GDC.

2 2

d = ( 14 + 5.16t ) + ( 7 + 1.16t )

Hence minimum value of d ≈ 13.8 km

Motion with ariabe eoity in t wo dimenion

Kinematics is also covered in

⎛ ⎞
sections 5.4 and 5.5 x

If an object’s position x is a function of t with x = then its velocity

⎜ ⎟
y
⎝ ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x
Note x

v = x = and its acceleration is a = !

x! = where the dot notation
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

y y

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

2
When x is in bold type then it
dx d x

signifies differentiation with respect to time, so x = and !

x! =
2
represents a vector; when not bold dt dt

it represents a single value.

Eampe 3.6.7

A heavy ball is thrown from a height of 2 m at an (b) Given that after it has been thrown, the

1 1

angle of 30° to the horizontal with a speed of 3 ms acceleration of the ball is 9.81 j ms , find

the horizontal distance from the point of

(a) Find the initial velocity vector, with

projection that the ball hits the ground.

the x component horizontal and the y

componentvertical.

Solution

(a) 3 cos 30i + 3 sin 30 j

The components can be found from a diagram of

the velocity vector.

= 2.598...i + 1.5 j

(b) v = a dt = c i + ( 9.81t + c ) j
∫ 1 2 3 m/s

When t = 0

30°

v = 2.598...i + 1.5 j

When integrating you need to add a constant term

⇒ c = 2.598..., c = 1.5
1 2
to both of the components.

v ≈ 2.60i + ( 9.81t + 1.5) j

9.81
2

r = v dt = (2.60t + c )i + t + 1.5t + c j
∫ 3 ( 4 )
2

When t = 0

r = 2 j ⇒ c = 0, c = 2
3 4

9.81
2

r = ( 2.60t ) i + t + 1.5t + 2 j
( )
2

When the object hits the ground,

The two components provide two equations which

vertical displacement = 0 hence

can be used separately.

9.81
2

t + 1.5t + 2 = 0
The negative value of t is disregarded as the
2

equation is only valid for t ≥ 0

⇒ t = 0.809 5…

Horizontal displacement is
Though this could be solved by the quadratic

2.598... × 0.8095... ≈ 2.10 m

formula, it is best to solve it directly on the GDC.

128

/
 3.6 v E c TO R s

The motion of a body which moves only under the action of

gravitational force is called projectile motion. It is a special case

of motion with a variable velocity. Another special case is that

of circular motion, as illustrated in the example below.

Even when the question gives vectors in terms of the base vectors, i, j and k

you can work entirely with column vectors.

Eampe 3.6.8

A particle P moves so that its displacement from a (c) Find an expression for the velocity of the P at

⎛ ⎞
3 cos 2 t time t.

point O at time t seconds is given by r =

⎜ ⎟
3 sin 2 t
⎝ ⎠

(d) Find the smallest positive value of t at which

(a) Verify that P is always a constant distance from

⎛ ⎞
1

the velocity is in the direction of

⎜ ⎟
O and state that distance.
0
⎝ ⎠

(b) Find the time taken for P to complete one

fullcircle.

Solution

2 2

⎛ ⎞ The formula sin θ + cos θ = was given in

3 cos 2t

(a) r =
⎜ ⎟ section 3.4 of this book and is in section AHL 3.8

⎜ 3 sin 2t ⎟

⎝ ⎠
of the formula book.

2 2

= (3 cos 2t) + (3 sin 2t)

The distance being constant means that the

2 2 particle is moving in a circle.

= 9 (cos 2t + sin 2t) = 3

The distance from O is therefore always

constant and equal to 3 units.

(b) P will complete a circle when 2t = 2π ⇒ t ≈ 3.14 The period of the functions 3 cos 2t and 3 sin 2t

2π
seconds

is = π (see sections 2.3 and 2.4)

⎛ 6 sin 2 t ⎞

(c) v = Each component is differentiated using the

⎜ ⎟
6 cos 2 t
⎝ ⎠
chain rule.

⎛ ⎞
1

(d) This occurs when 6 cos 2t = 0 and 6 sin 2t is If moving in the direction then the velocity
⎜ ⎟
0
⎝ ⎠

positive ⎛ ⎞
1

vector must be a positive multiple of .

⎜ ⎟
0
π 3π ⎝ ⎠

6 cos 2t = 0 ⇒ 2t = or

2 2
If it was a negative multiple then it would be

π 3π ⎛ ⎞
1

Hence t = or moving in the direction of the vector

⎜ ⎟
4 4 0
⎝ ⎠

3π 6 cos 2t = 0 could also be solved directly from

For 6 sin 2t to be positive t = ≈ 2.36

a GDC.

129

/
3

3 . 7 G R A P H S

You houd know: You houd be abe to:

✔ the denitions of: graphs, vertices, edges, ✔ represent real-world structures (circuits, maps,

adjacent vertices, adjacent edges, degree of etc) as graphs (weighted and unweighted)

a vertex, simple graphs; complete graphs;

✔ calculate the number of k-length walks (or less

weighted graphs, directed graphs; in

than k-length walks) between two vertices

degree and out degree of a directed graph,

✔ construct the transition matrix for a strongly-

subgraphs; trees, adjacency matrices, walks,

connected, undirected or directed graph

circuits, cycles, connected and strongly

connected graphs
✔ determine whether an Eulerian trail or

th
circuitexists
✔ that given an adjacency matrix A, the (i, j)

entry of A gives the number of k length walks

✔ nd a minimum spanning tree using either

connecting i and j
the matrix or graphical method for Prim’s

algorithm or the graphical method for Kruskal’s

✔ that given a transition matrix for a graph the

th

(i, j) entry gives the gives the probability

✔ apply the Chinese postman algorithm with up

of moving from state j to state i in a

to four odd vertices

randomwalk.

✔ convert a practical travelling salesman problem

✔ Eulerian trails and circuits

to a classical problem by completion of a table

of least distances.
✔ Hamiltonian paths and cycles

✔ use the nearest neighbour algorithm for

✔ Kruskal’s and Prim’s algorithms for nding

determining an upper bound for the travelling

minimum spanning trees

salesman problem

✔ the Chinese postman problem and algorithm

✔ use the deleted vertex algorithm for

for determining the shortest route around a

determining a lower bound for the travelling

weighted graph traversing each of the edges

salesman problem.
at least once

✔ the travelling salesman problem to determine

the Hamiltonian cycle of least weight in a

weighted complete graph

B Graph deinition

C
Consider the graph G1.

The vertices are A, B, C and D and the edges are

[AB], [BC], [BD] and [CD]

A

The edges [AB] and [BC] are adjacent because they share a vertex, B

The vertices A and B are adjacent because they are connected by an edge.

The edge from D to itself is called a loop. Because there is more than

one edge from C to D we say there are multiple edges

Graph G1

A simple graph is one with no loops or multiple edges.

130

/
 3 .7 GR A P H s

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges incident to it, so the

degree of A is 1, of B is 3, of C is 3 and of D is 5.

A directed graph is one in which it is possible to travel in only

onewayalong the edge. The direction of permissible travel is indicated

by an arrow.

For example in Graph G2, it is possible to travel from P to S but not

from S to P

S Graph G2

On a directed graph, the in-degree of a vertex is the number of edges

that lead to the vertex and the out-degree is the number of edges

leading from the vertex. Hence the in-degree of vertex P is 1 and the

out-degree is 2.

Adjaeny matrie Note

th

In an adjacency matrix A, the (i, j) entry (a ) is the number of edges

ij
This is the opposite to a transition

leading from vertex i to vertex j.

matrix in which the a entry gives
ij

the probability of moving from

The adjacency matrix for graphs G1 and G2 are shown below.

ver tex j to ver tex i

A B C D P Q R S

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
P 0 1 0 1
A 0 1 0 0

G1 = G2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Q 1 0 0 1
B 1 0 1 1

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

C 0 1 0 2 R 0 1 0 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
D 0 1 2 2 S 0 0 0 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

B
A walk is a route from one

Note

vertex to another. Its length is the

C

number of edges it traverses. In

The sum of a row or column of an

graph G1 the route A to B to D

adjacency matrix gives the degree

is a walk of length 2. The walk is

A
of the ver tex represented by that

usually written as a list of vertices,

row/column. For a directed graph

for example ABD

the sum of a row gives the out-

D degree and the sum of a column

Graph G1

gives the in-degree.

th n

The (i, j) entry of the adjacency matrix A is the number of walks of length n

from i to j

Eampe 3.7.1

(a) Construct an adjacency matrix M for this graph.

131

/
3

2 3

(b) Find (i) M (ii) M

(c) Hence or otherwise find the number of walks of length less

than or equal to 3 from A to D

The graph represents airports A, B, C and D and shows which are

connected by direct flights.

Georgina wishes to travel between airports A and D in at most

three flights.

(d) Explain in context why the number of possible routes she

would consider is fewer than the answer to part (c).

Solution

(a) ⎛ ⎞ The matrix is set up with

0 1 1 1

⎜ ⎟
1 0 1 1 A in the first row/column,

⎜ ⎟

1 1 0 0
⎜ ⎟ then B, C and D

⎜ ⎟
1 1 0 0
⎝ ⎠

The powers are found from

⎛ ⎞
(b) (i) 3 2 1 1 (ii) ⎛ 4 5 5 5 ⎞ the GDC

⎜ ⎟
2 3 1 1 5 4 5 5
⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
The number of routes is the
1 1 2 2 ⎜ 5 5 2 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1 1 2 2 ⎝ 5 5 2 2 ⎠ number of routes of length
⎝ ⎠

1, 2 and 3, so the entries in

(c) 1 + 1 + 5 = 7 the top right corner of the

three matrices are added.

(d) Some of the walks involve

leaving and returning to A or For example, ABAD. The

going to D directly and to B and trip from A to B and back

back to D again. again would be unnecessary.

Tranition matrie
Link to chapter 1 section 1.5

Matrices, and chapter 4 section

A transition matrix for a graph gives the probability of reaching any

4.10 Transition matrices and

given vertex from a starting vertex when all edges are equally likely

Markov chains. It is best to review

to be taken (a random walk).

these two sections before reviewing

th

The (i, j) entry is the number of edges leading from vertex j to vertex i.

this section.

A B C D

Note
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞

A 0

⎜ 3 2 2 ⎟
This is the opposite to an

⎜ 1 1 1 ⎟

adjacency matrix. B 0
The transition matrix for graph in Example 3.7.1 is
⎜ ⎟
3 2 2

⎜ ⎟
1 1

0 0
C ⎜ ⎟

3 3

⎜ ⎟

1 1

⎜ 0 0 ⎟
D

⎝ 3 3 ⎠

In exams, all transition matrices

will be for strongly connected

graphs. The steady state vector for the transition

matrix gives the long-term proportion of

time spent at each vertex on a random walk. B

Note
The steady state will always exist when the

graph is connected or the directed graph is

When the graph represents

strongly connected (which means you can A

connections between webpages,

get from any vertex to any other vertex).

the steady state values can be

used to rank the webpages.

132

/
 3 .7 GR A P H s

Eampe 3.7.2

The directed graph here shows the links between (a) Find the transition matrix for this random

webpages. A search engine performs a random walk.

walk through the graph in which it is equally

(b) Find the probability of the search engine being

likely to leave a site by any of the possible links.

at site E after following three links, given it

B begins it search at site A.

(c) Find the long-term probabilities of being at

A each of the sites.

C

Solution

(a) A B C D E Note: because this is a directed graph the matrix is not

symmetrical.

⎛ ⎞
A 0 0.333 0 0 1

In the first column there are 4 equal probabilities as

⎜ ⎟
B 0.25 0 0.5 0 0

⎜ ⎟
there are four edges from A

T = C 0.25 0.333 0 0.5 0

⎜ ⎟

D ⎜ 0.25 0.333 0.5 0 0 ⎟

⎜ ⎟

E 0.25 0 0 0.5 0
⎝ ⎠

3 3

(b) From T the probability is 0.1875 This is the entry in the fifth row of the first column of T

(c) Each column in the steady state vector is Finding the values from a high power of T. The answers

have been given to three significant figures but could

⎛ ⎞
0.222...

⎜ ⎟ have been given exactly as fractions.

0.166...

⎜ ⎟

0.222...
⎜ ⎟

⎜ ⎟
0.222...

⎜ ⎟

0.166...
⎝ ⎠

The probability of being at A, C and D

is 0.222, and of being at B and E is 0.167

There is no need to write out the whole matrix. You should state that you are

finding T , so if you entered the values incorrectly or read the wrong value you

would get method or follow through marks.

Graph agorithm

A weighted graph is one in which the edges are labelled with weights.

The weights might represent distances between the vertices or time of

travel or costs etc.

A cycle is a route that starts and ends at the same vertex without

repeating any vertex.

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