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UNIT 5: Global Environmental Issues and Policies
1. Climate Change and Global Warming
Meaning and Concept
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature, rainfall patterns, wind systems,
and frequency of extreme weather events on Earth. While climate change can occur due to
natural factors, the current rapid change is primarily anthropogenic (human-induced). Global
warming is a major component of climate change and refers specifically to the increase in
Earth’s average surface temperature due to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Causes of Climate Change and Global Warming
The main cause is the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, which trap
heat and prevent it from escaping into space.
Major causes include:
Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) for electricity, transport, and industry → releases
CO₂
Deforestation → reduces carbon sinks and increases atmospheric CO₂
Industrial processes → release methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases
Agricultural practices → methane from livestock and rice cultivation
Urbanization and waste disposal → landfill gases and energy use
Impacts of Climate Change
On human communities:
Increased frequency of heat waves, floods, cyclones, and droughts
Threats to food security, water availability, and human health
Climate-induced migration and displacement
On biodiversity:
Habitat loss and species extinction
Coral bleaching due to ocean warming
Changes in migration and breeding patterns
On agriculture:
Reduced crop productivity due to temperature stress
Changes in rainfall affecting sowing and harvesting
Increased pest and disease outbreaks
On global economy:
Damage to infrastructure
Increased disaster management costs
Unequal impacts on developing countries
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2. Ozone Layer Depletion
Meaning
The ozone layer is a protective layer in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV-B)
radiation from the sun. Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of this layer, particularly over polar
regions, forming the ozone hole.
Causes
Emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol
sprays
Halons used in fire extinguishers
Industrial solvents like carbon tetrachloride
These chemicals release chlorine and bromine atoms in the stratosphere, which destroy ozone
molecules.
Impacts
Increased skin cancer and cataracts in humans
Suppression of immune systems
Damage to phytoplankton, affecting marine food chains
Reduced crop yields
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3. Acid Rain
Meaning
Acid rain refers to precipitation (rain, snow, fog) containing sulfuric and nitric acids, formed when
sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) react with atmospheric moisture.
Causes
Burning of coal in thermal power plants
Emissions from vehicles
Industrial smelters and refineries
Impacts
Acidification of soil and water bodies
Damage to forests and crops
Corrosion of buildings and monuments (e.g., Taj Trapezium Zone)
Loss of aquatic life
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4. International Environmental Agreements and Programmes
Earth Summit (1992, Rio de Janeiro)
Also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
Introduced the concept of sustainable development
Led to Agenda 21, UNFCCC, and CBD
UNFCCC (1992)
Aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations
Recognizes Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
Framework for climate negotiations
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
Legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries
Introduced mechanisms like Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Montreal Protocol (1987)
Successful treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances
Considered one of the most effective environmental agreements
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Conservation of biodiversity
Sustainable use of biological resources
Fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources
Ramsar Convention
Conservation and wise use of wetlands
India has several Ramsar sites like Chilika Lake and Keoladeo National Park
CITES
Regulates international trade in endangered species
Prevents illegal wildlife trade
UNEP
Coordinates UN environmental activities
Provides scientific assessments and policy guidance
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
Prohibits development and use of chemical weapons
Protects human health and environment
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5. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Meaning
The SDGs are 17 global goals adopted in 2015 under the UN’s 2030 Agenda, aiming to balance
economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection.
Environment-Related SDGs
SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
SDG 13: Climate Action
SDG 14 & 15: Life Below Water and Life on Land
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6. India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
Meaning
Launched in 2008, NAPCC outlines India’s climate strategy combining development and
environmental protection.
Major Missions
1. National Solar Mission – promote solar energy
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
6. National Mission for a Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
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7. Environmental Legislation in India
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
Protects wild animals, birds, and plants
Establishes national parks and sanctuaries
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
Prevents water pollution
Establishes Central and State Pollution Control Boards
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Regulates diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Controls air pollution
Regulates industrial emissions
Environment Protection Act, 1986
Umbrella legislation
Empowers central government to protect the environment
Forest Rights Act, 2006
Recognizes rights of tribal and forest-dwelling communities
Balances conservation with social justice
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Conclusion (Exam-Friendly)
Global environmental issues such as climate change, ozone depletion, and acid rain pose
serious threats to ecological balance and human survival. International cooperation, sustainable
development goals, national action plans, and strong environmental legislation are essential to
address these challenges effectively. India’s commitment through NAPCC and environmental
laws reflects the integration of development with environmental protection.
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UNIT 6 – BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
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1. Biodiversity: Definition and Concept
Biodiversity (Biological Diversity) refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth,
encompassing diversity at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. The term was popularized by
E.O. Wilson (1988). Biodiversity is not merely the number of species but also includes the
genetic variation within species and the complex ecological interactions among organisms and
their environment.
Biodiversity is essential for:
Ecological stability
Evolutionary processes
Human survival, as it provides food, medicine, raw materials, and ecosystem services
Loss of biodiversity threatens ecosystem functioning and human well-being.
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2. Levels of Biological Diversity
a) Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species. It enables populations to
adapt to environmental changes, resist diseases, and survive climatic fluctuations.
Examples:
Different varieties of rice (Basmati, IR varieties) in India
Genetic variation among breeds of cattle
Importance:
Enhances adaptability and survival
Essential for selective breeding and crop improvement
Reduces extinction risk
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b) Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety and abundance of species within a region.
It has two components:
Species richness – number of species
Species evenness – relative abundance of species
Example:
Tropical rainforests show very high species diversity compared to deserts
Importance:
Maintains food chains and food webs
Increases ecosystem productivity and resilience
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c) Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a geographical area, including
forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems.
Example in India:
Himalayan alpine meadows
Mangroves of Sundarbans
Coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Importance:
Supports diverse life forms
Provides multiple ecosystem services
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3. India as a Mega-Biodiversity Nation
India is recognized as one of the 17 mega-biodiversity countries of the world due to:
Vast geographical and climatic diversity
High species richness
High levels of endemism
Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area, it harbors:
~8% of global biodiversity
Over 45,000 plant species
Over 91,000 animal species
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4. Biogeographic Zones of India
India is divided into 10 biogeographic zones (Rodgers & Panwar classification):
1. Trans-Himalayan Zone – Cold deserts (Ladakh)
2. Himalayan Zone – Alpine forests and meadows
3. Indian Desert Zone – Thar Desert
4. Semi-Arid Zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic Plain
8. North-East India
9. Coastal Zone
10. Islands (Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep)
Each zone supports distinct flora and fauna due to climatic and topographical variations.
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5. Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are regions with:
High species richness
High endemism
Serious threat from human activities
Criteria (Myers):
At least 1,500 endemic plant species
Loss of 70% or more of original habitat
Hotspots in India:
1. Western Ghats
2. Eastern Himalayas
3. Indo-Burma region
4. Sundaland (Nicobar Islands)
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6. Endemic and Endangered Species of India
Endemic Species
Species found only in a specific geographical region.
Examples:
Nilgiri Tahr – Western Ghats
Lion-tailed macaque – Western Ghats
Andaman wild pig – Andaman Islands
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Endangered Species
Species facing a very high risk of extinction.
Examples in India:
Bengal Tiger
Asiatic Lion
Great Indian Bustard
Gangetic Dolphin
Causes include habitat loss, poaching, pollution, and climate change.
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7. IUCN Red List: Criteria and Categories
The IUCN Red List assesses the conservation status of species globally.
Major Categories:
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)
Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)
Data Deficient (DD)
Criteria include:
Population decline rate
Geographic range
Population size
Degree of fragmentation
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8. Functions of Ecosystem
A. Physical Functions – Energy Flow
Energy flows unidirectionally from:
Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers
Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next (Lindeman’s 10% law).
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B. Biological Functions
Food Chains
Linear transfer of energy.
Grazing food chain
Detritus food chain
Food Web
Interconnected food chains providing ecosystem stability.
Ecological Succession
Gradual change in species composition over time.
Primary succession – bare land
Secondary succession – disturbed ecosystems
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C. Biogeochemical Cycles
Circulation of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
Major cycles:
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Water cycle
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9. Ecosystem Productivity, Pyramids, and Homeostasis
Productivity
Primary productivity – rate of biomass production by plants
Secondary productivity – biomass production by consumers
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Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy (always upright)
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Homeostasis
Ability of an ecosystem to maintain balance despite disturbances through feedback
mechanisms.
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10. Types of Ecosystems: Importance and Threats
A. Tundra Ecosystem
Cold, treeless regions
Found in Himalayan high altitudes
Threat: Climate change
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B. Forest Ecosystem
Tropical, temperate, and alpine forests
India: Western Ghats, Himalayas
Threats: Deforestation, mining
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C. Grassland Ecosystem
Supports grazing animals
Example: Banni grasslands (Gujarat)
Threats: Overgrazing, conversion to agriculture
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D. Desert Ecosystem
Low rainfall
Example: Thar Desert
Threats: Overextraction of groundwater
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E. Aquatic Ecosystems
Freshwater
Ponds, lakes, rivers
Example: Ganga River
Threats: Pollution, eutrophication
Marine
Oceans, estuaries, coral reefs
Example: Sundarbans mangroves
Threats: Oil spills, overfishing
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11. Ecosystem Services
Provisioning Services
Food, water, timber, medicine
Regulating Services
Climate regulation
Flood control
Pollination
Cultural Services
Spiritual, recreational, aesthetic values
Supporting Services
Soil formation
Nutrient cycling
Primary production
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12. Ecosystem Preservation and Conservation Strategies
In-situ Conservation
National parks
Wildlife sanctuaries
Biosphere reserves
Ex-situ Conservation
Zoos
Botanical gardens
Seed banks
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13. Basics of Ecosystem Restoration
Ecosystem restoration aims to recover degraded ecosystems.
Methods include:
Afforestation and reforestation
Wetland restoration
Removal of invasive species
Community participation
Example:
Chilika Lake restoration project.
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UNIT 7: HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
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1. Human Population Growth and Its Impacts
Meaning and Causes of Human Population Growth
Human population growth refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a population over
time. This growth is mainly due to high fertility rates, declining mortality rates, improved medical
facilities, better nutrition, advancement in science and technology, and improved sanitation
systems. In developing countries like India, population growth is also influenced by early
marriage, lack of awareness about family planning, poverty, and cultural factors.
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Impacts on the Environment
Rapid population growth puts immense pressure on the environment. Increasing demand for
food, shelter, water, and energy leads to overexploitation of natural resources. Forests are
cleared for agriculture and urbanization, resulting in deforestation, loss of wildlife habitat, soil
erosion, and climate imbalance. Increased industrialization and transportation to meet human
needs cause air, water, and soil pollution. Natural ecosystems are disturbed, leading to reduced
biodiversity and ecological instability.
Major Environmental Impacts (Points):
Overuse of land, water, and energy resources
Deforestation and desertification
Increased waste generation and pollution
Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions
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Impacts on Human Health
Population explosion leads to overcrowding, particularly in urban areas, increasing the spread of
communicable diseases such as tuberculosis, COVID-19, and water-borne diseases. Pollution
caused by industrial waste and vehicular emissions results in respiratory diseases, skin
problems, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders. Malnutrition is common in densely populated
regions due to unequal food distribution.
Health Impacts (Points):
Spread of infectious diseases
Malnutrition and poor immunity
Pollution-related illnesses
Mental stress and lifestyle disorders
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Impacts on Human Welfare
Human welfare is negatively affected as population growth leads to unemployment, poverty,
housing shortages, and pressure on public services like education, healthcare, and sanitation.
Slums and informal settlements develop, reducing quality of life and increasing social inequality.
Welfare Impacts (Points):
Increased poverty and unemployment
Inadequate housing and slum development
Pressure on infrastructure and public services
Social conflicts and inequality
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2. Carbon Footprint
Definition and Concept
A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted directly or indirectly by
human activities, expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents. It reflects the impact of individuals,
organizations, industries, and nations on climate change.
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Sources of Carbon Footprint
Carbon emissions mainly originate from burning fossil fuels for electricity, transport, and
industrial processes. Deforestation further increases carbon footprint by reducing the earth’s
capacity to absorb CO₂. Agricultural practices such as paddy cultivation and livestock rearing
emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
Major Sources (Points):
Energy production using coal and petroleum
Transportation systems
Industrial activities
Agriculture and livestock
Deforestation and land-use change
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Effects of High Carbon Footprint
A high carbon footprint accelerates global warming, causing climate change, melting of glaciers,
rising sea levels, and extreme weather events such as floods and droughts. It threatens food
security, biodiversity, and human health.
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Methods to Reduce Carbon Footprint
Reducing carbon footprint requires sustainable lifestyle changes, adoption of renewable energy,
energy efficiency, and conservation practices.
Reduction Measures (Points):
Use of solar and wind energy
Energy-efficient appliances
Public transport and electric vehicles
Afforestation and reforestation
Sustainable consumption patterns
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3. Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R)
Meaning and Need
Resettlement and Rehabilitation refers to the planned relocation and socio-economic restoration
of communities displaced due to developmental projects such as dams, mines, highways, and
industries. Proper R&R ensures social justice and sustainable development.
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Issues Faced by Displaced Communities
Displacement leads to loss of land, livelihood, cultural identity, and social networks. Tribal and
rural populations are most affected as their survival is closely linked to natural resources.
Major Problems (Points):
Landlessness and unemployment
Homelessness
Loss of traditional occupations
Psychological trauma
Social marginalization
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Case Studies
Narmada Valley Project
The construction of large dams displaced thousands of families, especially tribal communities.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan highlighted issues of inadequate compensation and
environmental damage.
Tehri Dam
The dam led to the submergence of Tehri town and raised concerns about seismic risks and
rehabilitation failures.
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4. Environmental Movements in India
Concept of Environmental Movements
Environmental movements are people-led collective actions aimed at protecting the
environment from exploitation and degradation.
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Chipko Movement
Originating in Uttarakhand in 1973, villagers hugged trees to prevent deforestation. The
movement emphasized the role of forests in maintaining ecological balance and rural
livelihoods.
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Appiko Movement
Started in Karnataka, it aimed to protect forests of the Western Ghats and promote sustainable
forest management.
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Silent Valley Movement
This movement successfully opposed a hydroelectric project in Kerala, leading to the
declaration of Silent Valley as a National Park.
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5. Environmental Conventions and Organizations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
CBD promotes biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of resources, and equitable benefit
sharing.
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Ramsar Convention
It focuses on the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
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CITES
CITES regulates international trade in endangered species to prevent extinction.
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UNEP
UNEP coordinates global environmental protection efforts.
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Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
CWC bans the development and use of chemical weapons to ensure environmental and human
safety.
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6. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Meaning and Importance
SDGs are a global framework of 17 goals aimed at achieving sustainable development by
balancing economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection.
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7. India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
Overview
Launched in 2008, NAPCC addresses climate change through eight national missions focusing
on energy, water, agriculture, forests, and knowledge systems.
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8. Environmental Legislations in India
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
Protects wildlife and endangered species.
Water Act, 1974
Prevents and controls water pollution.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980
Restricts deforestation.
Air Act, 1981
Controls air pollution.
Environment Protection Act, 1986
Comprehensive legislation for environmental protection.
Forest Rights Act, 2006
Recognizes rights of forest-dwelling communities.
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