Hawassa University

Institute Of Technology

Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

Course Title: Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

(ECEg1081)

First-order Circuits

2018 E.C
 First-order Circuits
Terms:

• Input excitation, energization output response

• Excitation without independent (external) source is called source free circuit

and it results natural response.
• These are temporary responses that will die out with time and also called
transient response.

• Response of a circuit with external excitation is applied is called forced

response.
• This response stay a long time and also called steady-state response

• RC and RL circuits are called first order circuits, why?

 Introduction

• In this chapter, we examine two types of simple circuits:

1. A circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor (RC circuit) and

2. A circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor (RL circuit)

• These circuits have applications in electronics, communications, and control

systems
• We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws

• Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic

equations.
• while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations,
which are more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.

• The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the
first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.

• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

Two ways of exciting first-order circuits.

 1# The first way is by initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits.

• In these so called source-free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored in

the capacitive or inductive element.
• The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the
resistors.

• Although source free circuits are by definition free of independent sources, they
may have dependent sources.

 2# The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources.

1. The Source-free RC Circuit

• A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.

• The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.

• Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as
shown in Fig.1.
• A circuit response is the manner in which the circuit reacts to an excitation.

• Our objective is to determine the circuit response, which could be the voltage
𝑉 𝑡 across the capacitor.
• Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is

𝑉 0 = 𝑉𝑂

• with the corresponding value of the energy

stored as
1
Fig.1. 𝑊 0 = 𝐶𝑉0 2
2
• Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig.1

• By definition, 𝑖𝐶 = C 𝑑𝑣 dt and 𝑖𝑅 = v/R. Thus,

𝑑𝑣 𝑉 𝑑𝑣 𝑉
𝐶 + =0 Or + =0
dt 𝑅 dt 𝑅𝐶

• This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is

involved.
• To solve it, we rearrange the terms as

• Integrating both sides, we get

• where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,

• Taking powers of e produces
−𝑡
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡
• But from the initial conditions, 𝑉 0 = 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑂 . Hence, 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶

• This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay
of the initial voltage.

• Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical
characteristics of the circuit and not due to some external voltage or current
source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.

• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and
currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation
• The natural response is illustrated
graphically in Fig. 2.

• Note that at t = 0, 𝑉 0 = 𝑉𝑂
• As t increases, the voltage decreases toward
zero.

• The rapidity with which the voltage

decreases is expressed in terms of the time
constant, denoted by the lower case Greek
letter tau, τ. Fig. 2.

• The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a
factor of 1/e or 36.8 % of its initial value.
 −𝑡 −𝜏
• At t = τ, 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 becomes 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −1 = 0.368𝑉0

• Or 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪
−𝑡 −𝑡
• In terms of the time constant, 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 can be written as 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏
−𝑡
• 𝑉 𝑡 𝑉0 = 𝑒 𝜏
• It is evident from the table that the voltage 𝑉 𝑡 is less
than 1% of 𝑉0 after 5τ (five time constants).

• Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor is

fully discharged (or charged) after five time constants.

• In other words, it takes 5τ for the circuit to reach its

final state or steady state when no changes take place
with time.
• Notice that for every time interval of τ, the voltage is reduced by 36.8 % of its
previous value, 𝑉(t + τ) = 𝑉 𝑡 /e = 0.368𝑉 𝑡 , regardless of the value of t.
• From 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 we observe that the smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the
voltage decreases, that is, the faster the response. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
• A circuit with a small time constant gives a fast response in that it reaches the
steady state (or final state) quickly due to quick dissipation of energy stored,

• whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives a slow response because it
takes longer to reach steady state.

• At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches steady
state in five time constants.
−𝑡
• With the voltage 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏 , we can find the current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡)

𝑉 𝑡 𝑉0 −𝑡
𝑖𝑅 𝑡 = = 𝑒 𝜏
𝑅 𝑅

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

• The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

1
• Notice that as 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑊𝑅 (∞) → 𝐶𝑉0 2 , which is the same as 𝑊𝐶 (0), the energy
2
initially stored in the capacitor.

• The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in
the resistor.
• The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is finding:

1. The initial voltage 𝑉(0) = 𝑉0 across the capacitor.

2. The time constant τ.

• With these two items, we obtain the response as the capacitor voltage
−𝑡
𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉 0 𝑒 𝜏
• Once the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other variables (𝑖𝐶 , 𝑉𝑅 , and 𝑖𝑅 ) can
be determined.

• In finding the time constant τ = RC, R is often the Thevenin equivalent

resistance at the terminals of the capacitor;

• that is, we take out the capacitor C and find R = 𝑅𝑇ℎ at its terminal .
• Example1: In Fig.4, let 𝑉𝐶 0 = 15 V.
Find 𝑉𝐶 , 𝑉𝑥 , and 𝑖𝑥 for t > 0.

Fig. 4
• Example2: The switch in the circuit in
Fig.5, has been closed for a long time,
and it is opened at t = 0.
 Find 𝑉 𝑡 for t ≥ 0.
 Calculate the initial energy stored in the
capacitor.
Fig.5
Solution1:
• We first need to make the circuit to conform with the standard RC circuit as
shown in Fig. 1.
• We find the equivalent resistance or 𝑅𝑇ℎ at the
capacitor terminals.
• Our objective is always to first obtain 𝑉𝐶 .
• Then from this, we can determine 𝑉𝑥 and 𝑖𝑥 .
Fig. 6
20∗5
• The equivalent resistance is 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 8 + 12 //5= = 4Ω
20+5

• Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.6, w/h is analogous to Fig. 1.

• The time constant is 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶 = 4 0.1 = 0.4 𝑠

 −𝑡 −𝑡
• Thus, 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 0 𝑒 𝜏 =15𝑒 0.4 = 15𝑒 −2.5𝑡 V

• From Fig.4, we can use voltage division to get 𝑉𝑥 ; so

12
𝑉𝑥 = × 𝑣 = 0.6 15𝑒 −2.5𝑡 = 9𝑒 −2.5𝑡 𝑉
12 + 8
𝑉𝑥
• Finally, 𝑖𝑥 = = 0.75𝑒 −2.5𝑡 𝐴
12
Solution2:
• For t < 0, the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as
represented in Fig. 7a.

• Using voltage division

9
𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = × 20 = 15 𝑉 t<0
9+3 Fig. 7a.
• Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the voltage
across the capacitor at 𝑡 = 0− is the same at t = 0, or

𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽

• For t > 0, the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown in Fig.7b.

• Notice that the RC circuit in Fig.7b is source free;

• The 20V independent source is needed to provide 𝑉0 or

the initial energy in the capacitor.

𝑅𝑒𝑞 =(9+1)=10Ω
Fig.7b
• The time constant is 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶 =10*20* 10 −𝟑= 0.2 s
• Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0 is
−𝑡 −𝑡
𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉 0 𝑒 =15𝑒 𝜏 0.2 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟓𝒕 V
• The initial energy stored in the capacitor is

1 2 1
WC 0 = CV0 = x 20 x10−3 x152 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝑱
2 2

Example: If the switch in the Fig. opens at t = 0, find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and 𝑊𝐶 0 .

Ans.
v(t) = 8𝑒 −2𝑡 V,
𝑊𝐶 0 = 5.33 J.
 The Source-free RL Circuit
• Consider the series connection of a resistor & an inductor, as shown in Fig. 8.
• Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the
current i(t) through the inductor.

• At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an

initial current 𝐼0 , or 𝑖 0 =𝐼0

• with the corresponding energy stored in the

inductor as
1
𝑊 𝑜 = 𝐿𝐼0 2 Fig. 8
2

• Applying KVL around the loop 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑅 = 0

• But 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖 dt and 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅
 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
• Thus, 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0 or + 𝑖=0
dt dt 𝐿

• Rearranging terms and integrating gives

or

−𝑅𝑡
• Taking the powers of e, we have 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿

• This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of
the initial current. The current response is shown in Fig.9.
−𝑅𝜏
• When t= 𝜏, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝜏 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 =𝐼 𝑒 −1 =0.368𝐼
0 0

• So, the time constant for the RL circuit is 𝜏=𝐿 𝑅

 −𝑅𝑡 −𝑡
• So, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜏

• With this current, we can find the

voltage across the resistor as
−𝑡
𝑉𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 𝜏

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

2 −2𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑖 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 𝜏

Fig. 9

• The energy absorbed by the resistor is

𝜏=𝐿 𝑅
 1 2 −2𝑡
• Or 𝑊𝑅 𝑡 = 𝐿𝐼0 (1-𝑒 𝜏 )
2

1
• Note that as t → ∞, 𝑊𝑅 (∞) → 𝐿𝐼0 2 , which is the same as 𝑊𝐿 (0), the initial
2
1
energy stored in the inductor as in 𝑊 𝑜 = 𝐿𝐼0 2 .
2

• The energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

• The key to working with a source-free RL circuit is finding:

1. The initial current 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 through the inductor.

2. The time constant τ of the circuit.

• With the two items, we obtain the response as the inductor current

−𝑡
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 𝑒 𝜏

• Once we determine the 𝑖𝐿 , other variables (𝑉𝐿 , 𝑉𝑅 , and 𝑖𝑅 ) can be obtained.

• Note that in general, R in 𝜏 = 𝐿 𝑅 is the Thevenin resistance at the terminals of

the inductor.
Example: Assuming that 𝑖 0 = 10 A, calculate 𝑖 𝑡 and 𝑖𝑥 (t) in the circuit in Fig.10

Fig.10
Solution:
• There are two ways we can solve this problem.
−𝑡
• One way is to obtain 𝑅𝑒𝑞 at the inductor terminals & then use 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 𝑒 𝜏

• The other way is to start from scratch by using KVL.

• Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 .

Method 1:
• 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the same as the 𝑅𝑇ℎ at the inductor terminals.
• B/c of the dependent source, we insert a voltage source with 𝑉0 =1V at the
inductor terminals a-b, as in Fig.10a.(We could also insert a 1A current source at
the terminals.)
• Applying KVL to the two loops results in

• Substituting 𝑖1 = −3 𝐴, 𝑖0 = −𝑖1 = 3 𝐴 Fig.10a

𝑉0 1 𝐿 3
• Hence 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = = Ω • The time constant is 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 s
𝑖0 3

−𝒕
• Thus, the current through the inductor is 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝟎 𝒆 𝝉 =10𝒆−(𝟐 𝟑)𝒕
𝑨, t > 0
Method 2
• We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in Fig. 10b.
For loop 1,
or

For loop 2,
Fig. 10b

• Substituting

• Since 𝑖1 = 𝑖, we may replace 𝑖1 with 𝑖 and integrate:

or
• Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain
−𝒕
𝒊 𝒕 =𝒊 𝟎 𝒆 𝝉 =10𝒆−(𝟐 𝟑)𝒕
𝑨 t>0 w/h is the same as by Method 1.

• The voltage across the inductor is

• Since the inductor and the 2 Ω resistor are in parallel,

• Example: In the circuit shown in Fig.11, find 𝑖0 , 𝑉0 , and 𝑖 for all time, assuming
that the switch was open for a long time.

Solution:
• It is better to first find the inductor
current 𝑖 and then obtain other quantities
from it.
Fig.11

• For t < 0, the switch is open. Since the

inductor acts like a short circuit to dc, the 6
Ω resistor is short-circuited, so that we have
the circuit shown in Fig.11a.
10
• Hence, 𝑖0 = 0, and 𝑖 𝑡 = = 2𝐴 , t < 0
2+3
• 𝑉0 (t)=3𝑖 𝑡 =6V , t < 0 Fig.11a
• Thus, 𝑖 0 = 2.

• For t > 0, the switch is closed, so that the voltage source is short circuited.
• We now have a source-free RL circuit as shown in Fig.11b.

• At the inductor terminals,

𝑅𝑇ℎ =3//6=2 Ω

• so that the time constant is

𝜏 = 𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝑞= 1 s
Fig.11b

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝟎 𝒆 𝝉 =2𝒆−t 𝑨, t > 0
−𝒕
• Hence,
• Since the inductor is in parallel with the 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors,
• And

• Thus, for all time,