`Characteristics of Particles of Matter

• The intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called
diffusion.
Example: Liquid ink in water, honey in water.

• On heating, diffusion becomes faster.

• Particles of matter is in moving state

Classification of Matter
1. Pure Substances

o Element (तत्व)
Examples: H, He, C, N, O
Total: 118 elements

o Compound (यौगिक)

▪ Fixed ratio of elements

▪ Chemical formula exists

Examples: CO₂, NH₃, SO₂, CH₄ (Methane)

2. Mixtures

o Homogeneous / Solution
Examples: Sugar in water, Brass, Bronze (Cu + Sn)

o Heterogeneous

▪ Colloid (Particles don't settle)

Example: Milk

▪ Suspension (Particles settle)

Example: Sand in water

Element
• A basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
reactions.

• Definition by: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

• Term "Element" given by: Robert Boyle

Solutions
• Example: Water + Salt = Solution (Water = Solvent, Salt = Solute)
• Hindi Explanation:
o पानी ज़्यादा मात्रा में होता है , इसलिए उसे Solvent (लििायक) कहते हैं।
o नमक कम मात्रा में होता है , इसलिए उसे Solute (लििेय) कहते हैं।
Comparison Table
Property Solution (लिियन) Suspension Colloid
Type Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
Size of Particles < 1 nm > 100 nm 1–100 nm
Tyndall Effect ✘ ✔ ✔
Stability Stable Unstable Stable
Filtration ✘ ✔ ✘
Types of Colloids
Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Type Example
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gemstones, milky glass
 Changes in Matter
• Physical Change: Change in physical properties without forming a new substance.
• 1 coulomb charge contains – 6*1018 electrons (approx.)
Example: Melting of ice, breaking of glass.
• The radius of hydrogen atom is 10-10
• Chemical Change: Formation of a new substance with different properties.
Que- According to the law of constant proportion, what will be the correct ratio of obtained
Example: Rusting of iron, digestion of food.
oxygen and hydrogen (O:H) after decomposition of 18 g water?

Ans- Water (H₂O) always decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed mass ratio.
Atoms and Molecules
By mass:
• Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
Hydrogen = 1amu * 2 = 2amu • Atomic radius is measured in nanometers (1 nm = 10⁻⁹ m)

Oxygen = 16amu • Concept of atom given by: Democritus and Leucippus

So, total water = 18 g

Hence, the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen (O : H) = 16 : 2 = 8 : 1

Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)
1. All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are indivisible and which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and chemical [Link] used symbols
for elements scientifically.

Limitations:

• Atoms are no longer considered indivisible.

• Atoms of the same element can have different masses (Isotopes).

Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms of different elements can have the same mass (Isobars).

• Molecule: A group of same or different atoms.

Examples: H₂O, O₂, CuSO₄

Discovery of Subatomic Particles

Particle Discoverer Year Charge Mass
Electron J.J. Thomson 1897 –1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg
Proton Goldstein / Rutherford 1886 / 1917 +1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C 1.6726 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
Particle Discoverer Year Charge Mass • Solid CO2 directly converts directly into gaseous state upon decreasing the pressure to --
Neutron Chadwick 1932 0 1.6749 × 10⁻²⁷ kg - 1 atmosphere, without coming to the liquid state.
• Buring of nepthalene ---- gives yellow flame because it is a hydrocarbon with double
bond
• Dil. HCl + CuO
• Modern periodic table contains 118 elements.
• Methane is widely used as fuel and major component of bio-gas and CNG, it is the one
Atomic Number (Z)
of the simplest compounds formed by carbon.
• Number of protons in an atom's nucleus. CH4 + O2 ----- CO2 + H2O
• 3Fe +4H2O ----- Fe3O4+ 4H2
• Represented by: Z
• Catenation is the ability of an element (especially carbon) to form long chains or rings
Example: ₇N¹⁴
by bonding with itself.
• Reaction of Lead Nitrate with Potassium Iodide
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2↓ + 2KNO3
Atomic Mass Yellow
• Proton + Neutron precipitate
Represented by: u (atomic mass unit) • CFCs are found in aerosol sprays, fire extinguishers, refrigerants and it effects ozone
1 amu = 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg layer.
• Cu(brown) + O2 ----- CuO(black) and CuO + H2 -------- Cu +H2O
Example (Carbon):
C¹² = 6p + 6n = 12 amu = 12u • CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)↓ + Na2SO4(aq)
blue blue
Atomic Radius • On oxidation, silver changes its colour to black and copper changes its colour to green
• 10⁹ nm = 1 m • Ability to form multiple bonds, property of carbon allows it to form long chains and
rings.
• 10⁷ nm = 1 cm • Methanoic acid (HCOOH) is also known as formic acid, this is simplest carboxylic acid.
• NaOH- Caustic soda
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) is laughing gas this is due to euphoric effects upon inhaling it.
Atomic Numbers 1–20 Important PYQs
Element Atomic No Element Atomic No
• 2 HCl + CuO ----- CuCl2 (Copper || chloride, blueish green) + H2O
H 1 Na 11
He 2 Mg 12 Chemical Reaction:
Li 3 Al 13 Na2SO4(aq)+BaCl2(aq)→BaSO4(s of white color)+2NaCl(aq)
Be 4 Si 14
• Barium sulphate (BaSO₄) is an insoluble white precipitate.
B 5 P 15 • Sodium chloride (NaCl) remains dissolved in solution (aqueous).
C 6 S 16
N 7 Cl 17
O 8 Ar 18
 • Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Sodium donates one electron to chlorine. Element Atomic No Element Atomic No
• Carbon can not form ionic bonds F 9 K 19
Ne 10 Ca 20
2. Covalent Bond

• Definition: Formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

• Occurs between: Non-metal atoms.

Molecular Mass
• Low melting point because of weak molecular forces. Example: Ammonia = NH₃
= 14 + (1 × 3) = 17 amu
• Example:Hydrogen molecule (H₂) – single covalent bond.

Oxygen molecule (O₂) – double covalent bond.

Avogadro’s Number
Nitrogen molecule (N₂) – triple covalent bond.
• 1 mole = 6.023 × 10²³ atoms/molecules

Molar Mass Formula:

3. Metallic Bond (Not discussed in detail, but may be mentioned briefly) Molar Mass = Atomic Mass × 1 mole

• Definition: Bond formed by the attraction between metal cations and the sea of
delocalized electrons.
Isotopes (समस्थागिक)
• Occurs in: Metals.
• Same atomic number, different mass number
Examples:
PYQs
o H¹ (Protium), H² (Deuterium), H³ (Tritium)
• Particles of matter is in moving state
o ₆C¹², ₆C¹³, ₆C¹⁴
• Max. malleability and ductility is in 1)gold 2) silver

• When bleeching powder mixed with water, clorine gas released

• Valency of carbon is 4 Isobars (समभारिक)
• Solid changes into liquid known as melting or fusion • Different atomic numbers, same mass number
Liquid changes into solid is known as solidification. Examples:
• Heating increases kinetic energy of particles of matter
o ₁₈Ar⁴⁰, ₁₉K⁴⁰, ₂₀Ca⁴⁰
• Covalently compound have low boiling and melting point because they have strong
covalent bond within molecules but weak intermolecular force. Ex. H2O
• heat energy required to change the state of matter without changing its temperature
is latent heat. Isotones
Solid to gas is known as sublimation and gas to solid is known as decomposition. • Same number of neutrons, different elements
• CFCs are used in refrigerators, aerosol sprays, fire extinguishers. In 1987 UNEP does an Example:
agreement to freeze CFC production until it reached at 1987 level.
• Carbon make a stable compound ---- due to small size carbon forms strong bonds o Boron-12 (5p + 7n), Carbon-13 (6p + 7n)
 🔄 Isomers of Butane (C₄H₁₀)
Rules of Chemical Composition • Structural isomers:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass o Straight chain (n-butane)
o Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. o Branched chain (isobutane)
Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
• Only 2 isomers possible.
2. Law of Constant Proportion / Definite Proportion
o In a chemical compound, elements are always present in fixed proportions by
mass.
Example: H₂O
🧪 Redox Reaction Example
▪ Mass ratio = 2 (H) : 16 (O) = 1:8
Reducing agent: CO (Carbon monoxide)—jiska oxidation hota h
Fe2 O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Structure of Atom
• CO removes oxygen from Fe₂O₃, thus reducing it.
Mass of 1 amu
•
• So,

We know, 12 amu of Carbon = 12 × 6.023 × 1023 = 12 grams12×6.023×1023=12grams

📷 Use in Photography
1
• Silver chloride (AgCl) and Silver bromide (AgBr) are used in black and white
photography.
1 amu = 6.023×1023 grams1amu=6.023×10231grams
And, the twelfth part of the mass of a carbon atom is 1 amu.
🧬 Homologous Series
How many moles are present in 40g of He?
• Difference in molecular mass between two consecutive members is –CH₂– group.
•
o CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈ ...
• Molar mass = 4g

Helium is 4 𝐻𝑒4He
So, o Difference = 14 amu
=12 amu (C)+2 amu (H)=14 amu

1 mole = 4𝑔1mole=4g
10 moles = 40𝑔10moles=40g Molecular mass of CH2 = 12 amu (C) + 2 amu (H) = 14 amuMolecular mass of CH2
Structure of an Atom Bonds
J.J. Thomson (1904) – Plum Pudding / Watermelon Model Types of bond
1. Atom consists of a positively charged sphere and electrons are embedded in it. 1. Ionic Bond (Electrovalent Bond)
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude, so the atom is electrically
neutral. • Definition: Formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
• Occurs between: Metals and non-metals.
 • Tail of mole of soap made of hydrocarbon and head is made of ions He only talked about electron.

🧪 Additional Reactions Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

• Saturated hydrocarbons are usually unreactive, but: • There is a positively charged center in an atom called the nucleus. Almost all mass
resides in the nucleus.
Sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + HCl • Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.

• The nucleus is very small compared to the atom.

💨 CO₂ Test with Lime Water Drawback:

Could not explain the stability of the atom (as per classical physics, electrons would spiral into
Question: Which gas is passed through calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate and the nucleus).
water?
Answer: CO₂
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2 O Niels Bohr Planetary Model (1913)
Result: Water turns milky due to calcium carbonate. • Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emitting radiation.

• An unbalanced equation is called a skeletal chemical equation. • Each orbit has a definite energy → called energy levels or shells.

🔁 Zinc Ion Formation • Energy levels designated as K, L, M, N.

Question: What causes the formation of zinc ion from zinc? • Electrons in the lowest energy level are in ground state.
Options: (a) Hydrolysis (b) Reduction (c) Combination (d) Oxidation
Answer: Oxidation

Zn → Zn2+ + 2𝑒 − Zn→Zn2++2e−
Distribution of Electrons in Different Shells
• The distribution is called electronic configuration.
Zinc loses electrons ⟶ oxidation.
• Bohr-Bury Scheme (1921):

o Maximum electrons in a shell = 2𝑛2 , where n = shell number

🌡 Lead & Mercury
• Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
Octet Rule
• Outermost shell can have max 8 electrons.
🧪 Nature of Oxides • Atom with full outer shell = very stable
• Oxides of aluminium and zinc show both acidic and basic nature (amphoteric). Example: 𝐾(19): 2,8,8,1

K(19):2,8,8,1 (Correct), K(19):2,8,9 (Incorrect)

Valency of Element (ii) Dehydration to form Ethene (unsaturated hydrocarbon):
• Number of electrons gained, lost, or shared to complete octet. Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in ethene formation:
Hot conc. 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
Ion
C2 H5 OH
Ethanol Ethene + Water
443k → C2 H4 + H2 O
•
⟶
•

𝑁𝑎(11)Na(11): p = 11, e = 11 → 2,8,1

Other examples:
🧪 Reactions of Ethanoic Acid/Acetic acid
If 1 electron is donated → 10 electrons → 𝑁𝑎 + Na+
• With NaOH:
•
•

𝑀𝑔(12): 2,8,2 ⇒ 𝑀𝑔2+ Mg(12):2,8,2⇒Mg2+

• With KOH:

RCOOH + NaOH → Soap + Glycerol

•

𝑃(15): 2,8,5 ⇒ 𝑃3− P(15):2,8,5⇒P3−

𝐶𝑙(17): 2,8,7 ⇒ 𝐶𝑙 − Cl(17):2,8,7⇒Cl−
•

RCOOH + KOH → Soap + Glycerol

Chemical Reaction
Esterification reaction formation of ester

𝐶𝐻₃𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶₂𝐻₅𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻₃𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶₂𝐻₅ + 𝐻₂𝑂

• Process where new substances with new properties form from one or more substances.
• Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
Question: The sodium or potassium salt of which acid is circulated as soap?
Chemical Equation Answer: Carboxylic acid
• Symbolic representation of chemical reaction using formulas. Question: Sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acid is known as?
Answer: Soap
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
• Change in Color: 🧼 Parts of Soap
Example:
Part of Soap Name Nature
• Formation of Gas:

𝐹𝑒 + 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑢
Example: Long hydrocarbon chain Hydrophobic end Water-hating (non-polar)
(Tail) made of hydrocarbon (loves oil/greese)
• Change in Temperature: Ionic or polar head Hydrophilic end Water-loving (polar)
𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
Example: (Head) made of ions
• Formation of Precipitate:

𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
Example: • Micelles are spherical structures formed when soap or detergent molecules aggregate
𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 in water.
 o R–C=C–R + H₂ → (nickel catalyst) → R–CH–CH–R (saturated) AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl↓ + NaNO3

Catalysts speed up reactions without being consumed in the process. down arrow represents precipitate, double displacement reaction

• Change in State:
Example:
Health & Industrial Note 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)
• Hydrogenation is commonly used to convert vegetable oils (rich in unsaturated fats)
into saturated fats (like in margarine) using nickel or platinum catalysts.
Balanced vs Unbalanced Chemical Equations
• Unsaturated fatty acids are considered healthier than saturated fats, so oils with
unsaturation are preferred for cooking. • Unbalanced: 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂H2+O2→H2O

• Balanced: 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂2H2+O2→2H2O

Why Balancing Matters:

🔥 Oxidation • Law of Conservation of Mass:
• Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion. Mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

• Example of alcohol oxidation:

Alkaline KMnO4 +Heat How to Make Equations More Informative
CH3 CH2 OH → CH3 COOH
• State of Reactants and Products
Ethanol ⟶ Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) Example:
200 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 450∘ 𝐶, 𝐹𝑒
• Oxidising agents: 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔)N2(g)+3H2(g)200atm,450∘C,Fe2NH3(g)

o Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄)

o Acidified potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) Types of Chemical Reactions

o These oxidise alcohols to acids by adding oxygen to the starting material. 1. Combination Reaction
Question: Which of the following is used in the oxidation of alcohol to carboxylic acid? 𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐴𝐵
Answer: Alkaline KMnO₄
Examples:

• 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
🍷 Reactions of Ethanol (Quick lime + water → slaked lime)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
(i) Reaction with Sodium: • 2𝑀𝑔 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂2

Na + C2 H5 OH → C2 H5 ONa + H2 (white-colored magnesium oxide)

Sodium + ethanol Sodium ethoxide + Hydrogen 340 𝑎𝑡𝑚
• 𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑙)
(Carbon monoxide + Hydrogen → Methanol)
 Functional Groups & Classes of Compounds
2. Decomposition Reaction Class Prefix/Suffix Example
Haloalkane Prefix: chloro‑, bromo‑ Chloropropane
a. Thermal Decomposition Alcohol Propanol

𝐴→𝐵+𝐶
Example: Aldehyde Propanal

Suffix: ‑ol
• Ketone Propanone

Suffix: ‑al
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
(Limestone → Quick lime)
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
Carboxylic Acid Propanoic acid

Suffix: ‑one
Other Important Examples:
Suffix: ‑oic acid
•
(Lead nitrate → reddish brown NO₂ gas)
• Example: Ethane (CH₃–CH₃); if one hydrogen is replaced with Cl → Chloroethane.

2𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 → 2𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 4𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2

•
(Baking soda → sodium carbonate)
2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
• Combustion, Substitution & Addition Reactions
• 2H2O2 --------- 2H2O + O2 Combustion
2𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂3
hydrogen peroxide
• All carbon allotropes burn in oxygen to form CO₂ along with heat and light:
a. C + O₂ → CO₂ + heat/light
b. CH₄ + 2 O₂ → CO₂ + 2 H₂O + heat/light
2. Photolysis
• Decomposition by sunlight c. CH₃CH₂OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + heat/light
Examples:
• Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a clean flame; unsaturated hydrocarbons produce
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 yellow flame with black smoke.
• All allotrophs of carbon gives Co2 in presence of oxygen and gives CO in absence of
o 2𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 → 2𝐴𝑔 + 𝐶𝑙2
oxygen.
𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑦
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Substitution Reactions
• Saturated hydrocarbons are mostly unreactive, but in presence of sunlight, chlorine can
Used in black & white photography substitute hydrogen in a fast reaction:
o 2𝐴𝑔𝐵𝑟 → 2𝐴𝑔 + 𝐵𝑟2
o CH₄ + Cl₂ → sunlight → CH₃Cl + HCl
3. Electrolysis Addition Reactions
• Decomposition using electricity • Unsaturated hydrocarbons can add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts (like
palladium or nickel) to become saturated:
 2. First member of the alkyne series?
• (a) Ethyne (C₂H₂) ✔

3. Structural isomers of butane? 1. Single‑Displacement Reactions

• Correct ones are isomers (i) and (iii).
• General Form:
4. Valency of carbon?
AB + C → A + BC
• 4, that’s why called tetravalent
• Examples:
5. Pentane (C₅H₁₂) has how many covalent bonds?
• (c) 16 C–C & C–H bonds o Fe(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → FeSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)

Copper sulfate (blue) → iron sulfate (green)

Benzene & Covalent Bonds o Zn(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)

Structural Formula of Benzene (C6H6) Formation of zinc sulfate
A special aromatic hydrocarbon with a six-membered carbon ring and alternating double bonds o Pb(s) + CuCl₂(aq) → PbCl₂(aq) + Cu(s)
(resonance structure).
Lead displaces copper from copper chloride
Covalent Bond
A chemical bond where atoms share electrons to achieve a stable outer-shell (usually an octet).
3. Double‑Displacement Reactions- Exchange of ions between the
• Always between nonmetals.
reactants
• Represented by shared pairs of electrons. • General Form:
AB + CD → CB + AD
Physical Properties of Some Covalent Compounds
• Usually occurs in aqueous solution
Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)
• Example:
Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) 290 391
Chloroform (CHCl₃) 209 334 o Na₂SO₄(aq) + BaCl₂(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + BaSO₄(s)
Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH) 156 351 Barium sulfate precipitates as a white solid
Methane (CH₄) 90 111

o 3NaOH+FeCl3→Fe(OH)3↓+3NaCl
Allotropes of Carbon: Diamond, graphite, and Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀).
Heteroatom: Any non‑carbon, non‑hydrogen atom within an organic molecule (e.g. oxygen,
chlorine, bromine).

3. Redox (Oxidation–Reduction) Reactions

• Oxidation:
 o Loss of electrons • Bronze (copper + tin,sn)88+12: harder than copper; used for coins, statues, medals.
o Oxygen added / hydrogen removed • Amalgams (mercury + silver/tin/copper): used by dentists for cavity fillings.
• Reduction: • Solder (lead + tin): used to join metal parts (e.g. in electronics).
o Gain of electrons or hydrogen
o Oxygen removed
Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.
• Examples:
o ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
▪ ZnO is reduced (Zn²⁺ → Zn), C oxidized (C → CO) Carbon and Its Compounds
o CuO(s) + H₂(g) → Cu(s) + H₂O(g) Hydrocarbons
▪ CuO reduced to Cu; H₂ oxidized to H₂O Organic compounds made only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
o MnO₂(s) + 4 HCl(aq) → MnCl₂ + 2 H₂O + Cl₂(g) Types:
• Alkanes: Single C–C bonds; general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂; saturated; burn with clean flame
• Oxidation-state table example (Mn & Cl in MnO₂ + HCl): (e.g. methane).
o Mn: +4 → +2 (reduction) Alkenes are arranged in lewis structure
• Alkenes: One C=C double bond; formula CₙH₂ₙ; unsaturated; burn with a yellow flame
and black smoke (e.g. ethene).
o Cl: ‑1 → 0 (oxidation)
• Alkynes: One C≡C triple bond; formula CₙH₂ₙ₋₂; unsaturated;
4. Corrosion Number Root Word
similar combustion behavior (e.g. ethyne).
• Process where metals are damaged by reacting with moisture or acids. C₁ Meth-
Naming: Root + Suffix
• Rusting of iron: • Propane (C₃H₈): Prop‑ + –ane C₂ Eth-
C₃ Prop-
• Ethene (C₂H₄): Eth‑ + –ene
• Copper corrosion: C₄ But-
2 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 3 𝑂2 (𝑔) + 6 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) → 2 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ⋅ 𝑥 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠)
• Propyne (C₃H₄): Prop‑ + –yne C₅ Pent-
• Prevention methods: C₆ Hex-
2 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)
C₇ Hept-
o Galvanization
o Electroplating
o Painting Practice Questions (Examples)
• Rancidity: Oxidation of fats/oils on exposure to air—causes bad smell and taste. 1. IUPAC name of CH₃–CH₂–CH₃?
• (a) Propane ✔
 • Sodium, magnesium, calcium are extracted this way. o Prevent by adding antioxidants, storing in airtight containers, refrigerating, or
replacing air with nitrogen.
• Aluminium is obtained by electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide (not chloride).

5. Acids, Bases, and Salts

Refining of Metals
• The most widely used method: Electrolytic refining.
Properties
• Acids:
• Impure metal = anode, pure metal = cathode, and solution of the metal salt as
electrolyte. o Taste sour (e.g. lemons)

• When current passes: o Corrosive and cause stinging to touch

o Impure metal dissolves into electrolyte. o Conduct electricity in solution by producing H⁺ ions

o Pure metal deposits onto cathode. • Bases (Alkalis):

o Soluble impurities remain dissolved, insoluble impurities form anode mud. o Taste bitter

o Feel soapy and slippery

Corrosion o Concentration of OH⁻high

• Silver tarnishes: reacts with sulfur in air → forms silver sulfide, turning black.

• Iron rusts: exposed to moist air → forms flaky brown rust. Indicators
• Copper corrodes: reacts with moist carbon dioxide and oxygen → forms a green coating Substances that show acid or base presence by color change:

➤ Natural Indicators
of copper carbonate.

Prevention of Corrosion: • Litmus (from lichens): purple in neutral solution;

• Galvanisation: coating iron or steel with zinc protects it even if zinc layer is damaged. o Blue litmus → red in acid
• Alloying: improves metal properties—for example: o Red litmus → blue in base
o Steel (iron + carbon) is stronger than pure iron. • Turmeric (curcumin): yellow in acid/neutral; turns reddish‑brown in base
o Stainless steel (iron with nickel and chromium) is hard and rust-resistant. • Red cabbage juice (anthocyanin): purple in neutral; turns red/pink in acid, greenish in
base

• China rose (hibiscus): magenta (acid) → green (base)

Properties of Alloys
• Steel (iron + carbon): harder and stronger than pure iron. ➤ Olfactory Indicators
• Onion and vanilla: smell unchanged with acid; smell vanishes with base
• Brass (copper + zinc)70+30: more malleable and corrosion-resistant than copper or zinc
alone.
➤ Synthetic Indicators • Highly reactive metals (e.g. K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al): extracted by electrolysis
• Examples: phenolphthalein, methyl orange—used in lab, color changes in specified pH
ranges
Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
• Example for Mercury:
Overview Table: Indicators and Color Changes
a. HgS + O₂ → HgO + SO₂
Indicator Acidic Solution Neutral Solution Basic Solution
b. HgO (on heating) → Hg + O₂
Blue litmus Red No change Stays Blue
• True for copper as well: very unreactive oxides can be reduced by heating alone.
Red litmus Stays Red No change Blue
Turmeric paper Yellow Yellow Red‑brown
Extracting Metals Middle of the Activity Series
Red cabbage juice Pink/Red Purple Green/Blue • These metals are usually found as sulphides or carbonates.
China rose Magenta - Green • Methods:
Onion/Vanilla smell No change - Smell disappears o Calcination: heating in absence of air to remove oxygen, forming oxide (used for
carbonates).
o Roasting: heating in excess air to convert sulphides into oxides.
• Then, metal oxides are reduced using appropriate reducing agents (e.g. carbon).
o Example: heating zinc oxide with carbon produces metallic zinc.
Acid Concepts
• Arrhenius definition: Acids release H⁺ ions in aqueous solution (e.g. H₂SO₄ → 2 H⁺ +
SO₄²⁻; HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻)
Extracting Metals High in the Activity Series
• In water: H₂O + H⁺ → H₃O⁺ (hydronium ion) • Very reactive metals (Na, Mg, Ca, Al, K) cannot be reduced by carbon.
Types of Acids • For example: carbon cannot reduce oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium
• Organic acids (in plants/animals): due to their high affinity for oxygen.
o Lactic acid (CH₃CH(OH)COOH – curd) • These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their molten chlorides (e.g.
molten NaCl).
o Acetic acid (CH₃COOH – vinegar)
Example: Sodium Extraction
o Formic acid (HCOOH – ants)
• Electrolysis of molten NaCl:
o Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇ – citrus fruits)
o At cathode: Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
• Inorganic (mineral) acids:
o At anode: 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 • Minerals with high metal content, from which metals can profitably be extracted, are o Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
called ores.
o Nitric acid (HNO₃)
• Out of 118 elements only 94 are found naturally.
o Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄)
• Examples:
• Strong vs Weak Acids:
o Gold and Platinum: found in free (native) state
o Strong acids ionize completely in water (mostly inorganic)
o Silver and Copper: found natively or in compound form
o Weak acids ionize partially (e.g. organic acids, carbonic acid: H₂CO₃ in soda
• Gangue: the impurities (soil, sand, etc.) mixed with ore water)

Common Minerals and Ores:

Metal Ore(s) 7. Chemical Properties of Acids
Zinc (Zn) ZnS (Sphalerite / Zinc blende), ZnCO₃ (Smithsonite / Calamine) • React with metals to produce salt + hydrogen gas:
Lead (Pb) Galena (PbS)
o Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
Uranium (U) Pitchblende (U₃O₈)
Mercury Cinnabar (HgS) o Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂
Copper Chalcopyrite / Copper glance (Cu₂S) • Metal displaces hydrogen from acid if metal is more reactive → hydrogen gas (may pop
Manganese Pyrolusite (MnO₂) when ignited)
Iron Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Siderite (FeCO₃)
Acid Reactions
Aluminium Bauxite
Thorium Monazite 1. Acid + Metal Carbonate / Hydrogen Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO₂
(Metal + CO₃)
Examples:
• Na₂CO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)
Steps in Metallurgy
• NaHCO₃(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)
1. Crushing of ore
• Acids react with metal carbonates/metal hydrogen carbonates to liberate CO₂.
2. Concentration / Enrichment (removal of gangue)

3. Conversion of ore into oxide

4. Reduction of metal oxide to free metal

2. Acid + Base → Salt + Water
(Neutralization Reaction)
5. Refining / Purification
• When acid reacts with base (or vice versa), they neutralize each other and form water
Reactivity Series & Extraction Methods and salt.
• Low reactive metals (e.g. Ag, Au): found in native state
Example:
• Medium reactive metals (e.g. Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu): reduced using carbon • HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl
 Reaction with Water
3. Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water • Non‑metals usually do not react directly with water, but their oxides often do to form
acids:
(Basic oxides)
o CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid)
• Acid reacts with metal oxides (basic) to form salt and water, similar to a base.
o NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ (nitric acid)
• Metallic oxides are said to be basic oxides.
Example:
• 2HCl + CuO → CuCl₂ + H₂O Ionic Bond
(Copper(II) chloride – bluish green) • Example:
Na (atomic number 11) → electron configuration: 2, 8, 1
Cl (atomic number 17) → 2, 8, 7
Na¹⁺ + Cl¹⁻ → NaCl (ionic compound).
Bases Other examples: CaO, MgCl₂.
• Substances that furnish hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in aqueous solution are called bases.
(Hindi: क्षार लिियन) • Carbon can not form ionic bonds
• Includes all metal oxides. General Properties of Ionic Compounds
• Consist of one metal and one non‑metal.
Examples:
• Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide • Hard solids due to strong ionic attraction.
• Soluble base is called Alkali. • High melting and boiling points:
Example: K₂O + H₂O → KOH
All alkalis are bases, but all bases are not alkalis. o LiCl: 807 K / 1600 K
• Bases conduct electricity in aqueous solution because of ions. o MgCl₂: 981 K / 1685 K
o CaCl₂: 1045 K / 1900 K
o NaCl: 1074 K / 1686 K
Chemical Properties of Bases
o CaO: 2050 K / 3120 K
1. Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
• Bases react with metals to liberate H₂. • Generally soluble in water, but insoluble in solvents like kerosene or petrol.
Example: 2NaOH + 2Al → 2NaAlO₂ + 3H₂
• Conduct electricity in aqueous solution, enabled by mobile ions.
2. Base + Non-metal Oxide → Salt + Water
Occurrence of Metals
(Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature)
• The Earth's crust is the major source of metals.
• Bases react with non-metal oxides to form salt and water. Hence, they are also called
acidic oxides. • Naturally occurring metals or compounds in the crust are called minerals.
Reaction with Acids Example:
• Overall: Metal + dilute acid → Salt + H₂ (gas) with a characteristic “pop” sound • 2NaOH + CO₂ → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O

Specific examples:

• 2 K + 2 HCl → 2 KCl + H₂ Comparing Acids and Bases

• 2 Na + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H₂ • Both acids and bases are electrolytes (good conductors of electricity).

• Ca + 2 HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂ • The process of mixing acid or base in water is exothermic.

• Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂ • Both produce ions in water solution.

• Displacement reactions: A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its
salt solution
Universal Indicator
• Nitric acid (HNO₃): A strong oxidizing agent—undergoes different reactions and may • Used to show how strong an acid or base is.
evolve water instead of H₂, but magnesium can still react with very dilute HNO₃ to form
H₂ • A mixture of several indicators that shows different colors at different concentrations
of hydrogen ions.

pH Range and Indicator Colors

5. Aqua Regia (Royal Water)
pH Range Description Colour
• A mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid in a 3:1 ratio
1–3 Strong acid Red
• Capable of dissolving gold and platinum even though neither acid alone can do so 3–6 Weak acid Yellow/Orange
7 Neutral Green
• One of the few reagents able to dissolve these noble metals
8–11 Weak base Blue
11–14 Strong base Violet/Indigo
6. Displacement Reactions with Metal Salt Solutions
• Fe + CuSO₄ (aq) → FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s) (brown precipitate of copper)

• Zn (s) + CuSO₄ (aq) → ZnSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s)

pH Scale (0–14)
• pH is a scale to measure the strength of acids and bases.

•
📘 Non‑metals
pH = -log[H⁺]

• High H⁺ → Acid
• Non‑metals form negative ions by accepting or gaining electrons.
Low H⁺ → Base
• They lack metallic attributes.
Examples of pH Values
• The tendency to gain electrons characterizes non‑metals. • Gastic juice → 1.2

• Lemon juice → 2.2

 • Pure blood → 7.4 • Most metal oxides are basic; some (like Al₂O₃, ZnO) are amphoteric (can act acidically or
basically)
• Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 → 10
Reactions:
• Sodium hydroxide solution → 14
• Al₂O₃ + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl₃ + 3 H₂O (aluminium chloride formation)
• Al₂O₃ + 2 NaOH → 2 NaAlO₂ + H₂O (sodium aluminate)
Importance of pH in Everyday Life
• ZnO + 2 HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂O (zinc chloride)
• Our body works within the pH range of 7–7.8
• ZnO + NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ (sodium zincate)
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
• Some oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis:
• Soil pH can be reduced by adding sulfur, aluminum sulfate (Al₂(SO₄)₃), or sulfuric acid Na₂O + H₂O → 2 NaOH, K₂O + H₂O → 2 KOH
(H₂SO₄).
• Alkali metals (K, Na) react so rapidly with air they are stored under kerosene
• Tooth decay starts when pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
• Metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Pb form a thin oxide layer when exposed to air, which protects
underlying metal from further oxidation ("substrate"—the base metal remains safe from
more rusting)
Salt
• A compound formed by the reaction of an acid with a base (Neutralization Reaction). Reaction with Water
• General: Metal + water → Metal oxide/hydroxide + H₂ (gas)
Reaction
Sodium Chloride
Type Metals Products
Preparation:
Cold water Potassium, Sodium, Calcium Metal hydroxide + H₂
• Neutralization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hot water Magnesium Mg(OH)₂ + H₂
Properties: Steam Aluminium, Zinc, Iron Al₂O₃ + 3H₂ (for Al); ZnO + H₂ (for Zn); Fe₃O₄
• White crystalline solid + H₂ (for Fe)
• Soluble in water
• Neutral salt with no effect on litmus • Potassium:
2 K + 2 H₂O → 2 KOH + H₂ + heat
Uses:
• De-icing roads • Sodium:
2 Na + 2 H₂O → 2 NaOH + H₂ + heat
• Chlor-alkali process
• Calcium:
• Used in making: Ca + 2 H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂+ heat
o Baking soda
 • Mechanical properties: able Malleable(can be beaten into sheets) and ductile (drawn o Washing soda
into wires)
o Bleaching powder
• Physical state: Generally solid at 25 °C (except mercury)

• Hardness: Usually hard, but lithium, sodium, and potassium are soft enough to cut with
a knife Chlor-Alkali Process
• Electrolytic process that uses electric current to decompose NaCl (brine solution) to
• Notable conductors: Silver and copper are excellent; lead and mercury are poor
produce chlorine gas, NaOH, and hydrogen gas.
conductors of heat

• Melting points: Gallium (~29.7 °C) and cesium (~28 °C), melt near skin temperature
Saturated Solution (Brine):
(~37 °C) • A solution that holds maximum solute at a given temperature.

• Sonorous: Nearly all metals produce sound when struck Electrolysis Diagram:
• Anode (+): Cl⁻ → Cl₂
Non‑Metals
• Appearance: Dull or not shiny (exception: iodine) • Cathode (−): Na⁺, H⁺ → NaOH (in brine)

Products:
• Conductivity: Poor conductors of heat and electricity (with exceptions like graphite,
which conducts); diamond is the best conductor of heat among non-metals • Cl₂ (used in fuels, margarine, ammonia for fertilizers)
• Mechanical properties: Poor ductility and malleability • NaOH (used in de-greasing, soap, detergents, paper, artificial fibre)
• Physical state: Varied; only bromine is liquid at room temperature, others are primarily
solids or gases
Bleaching Powder (CaOCl₂)
(Calcium Oxychloride)
4. Chemical Properties of Metals
Preparation:
Reaction with Oxygen
• Produced by passing chlorine gas over dry slaked lime
• General: Metal + O₂ → Metal oxide Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O
• Reactivity varies: Properties:
o Some metals (K, Na, Ca) react with oxygen at room temperature • Reacts with water to release chlorine, acts as a disinfectant

o Others require heating Uses:

o Iron and copper require strong heating and react only slowly or on prolonged • Bleaching (textile and paper industry)
exposure
• Oxidizing agent
Examples:
When bleeching powder mixed with water, chlorine gas released
• 4 Fe + 3 O₂ → 2 Fe₂O₃ (reddish‑brown iron(III) oxide)

• 2 Cu + O₂ → 2 Cu₂O (black copper(I) oxide)

Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda – NaHCO₃) • Manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax
Preparation: • Removal of permanent water hardness
• Solvay Process:
NaCl + CO₂ + NH₃ + H₂O → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
(ammonia) (ammonium chloride)
Gypsum & Plaster of Paris
Properties: Gypsum
• White crystalline solid (or fine powder) Chemical formula: CaSO₄ · 2H₂O (Calcium sulfate dihydrate)
• Slightly basic • Naturally occurring mineral
• Releases CO₂ when heated or treated with acids • Used in cement manufacturing
NaHCO₃ (heat) → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
• Used as a fertilizer to improve soil quality
Uses:
• Used in making plaster of Paris
• Baking (as a leavening agent)
Plaster of Paris (POP)
• Fire extinguishers
Chemical formula: CaSO₄ · ½ H₂O (Calcium sulfate hemihydrate)
• Obtained by heating gypsum at ~373 K (100 °C):
Baking Powder: CaSO₄ · 2H₂O → (heat) → CaSO₄ · ½ H₂O + 3/2 H₂O It is a reversible reaction or can say,
• Mixture of baking soda and mild edible acid (e.g., tartaric acid) on adding water in pop we can get gypsum.
NaHCO₃ + H₂SO₄ → NaHSO₄(sulfuric) + CO₂ + H₂O • Common name: Plaster of Paris
Uses:
Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate) • Setting casts for broken bones
Chemical formula: Na₂CO₃ · 10H₂O • Molding and decorative materials
Preparation:
• Statues and sculptures
• Thermal decomposition:
2 NaHCO₃ → Δ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
• Hydration: 3. Classification of Elements
Na₂CO₃ + 10 H₂O → Na₂CO₃ · 10H₂O
All 118 elements are classified into three main groups based on chemical properties: Metals,
Properties: Non-metals, and Metalloids (semi-metals).
• White crystalline solid and Strongly alkaline in nature Metals
Uses: • Appearance: Shiny
• In glass, soap, and paper industries • Conductivity: High thermal and electrical conductors