The Rhetorical Situation
Author
Audience
Message
HOW AN E DIT ORIA L’S
AUTHOR CONN ECTS WITH
T HE IR A UDI ENCE
What is the ‘Rhetorical Situation’?
∙ Describes the relationship between the author, the audience, and the text.
∙ In the context of editorials, this refers to the language, presentation, and
argumentative techniques used to make their point.
∙ The author makes these strategic choices to convey their message.
∙ Their success depends on their audience's expectations, values, and biases.
The Elements of a Rhetorical Appeal
∙ There are four terms used to encompass the different appeals:
• Ethos (appeal to credibility)
• Pathos (emotional appeal)
• Logos (logical appeal)
• Kairos (timing/opportunity appeal)
Write down Four different sources of information.
What do you know to expect from each of these sources, and how do they differ from
one another?
Ethos
∙ Appeal to Credibility: use of expertise, reputable
sources, or personal credentials to build trust.
∙ For example, a New York Times editorial might
reference scientific studies or expert opinions to
bolster its arguments.
Pathos
∙ Emotional Appeal: Use of language and
narratives designed to evoke an emotional
response from the audience.
∙ An InfoWars editorial might tap into feelings of
distrust or betrayal to galvanize its readers
against perceived threats or injustices.
Logos
∙ Logical Reasoning: using data, statistics,
and logical arguments to appeal to sense
of reason.
∙ This might include presenting position as
grounded in evidence, or relying on either
deductive or inductive reasoning.
Kairos
∙ Timeliness and Relevance: seizing opportunity to
deliver a message, accounting for the cultural,
societal, and emotional context.
∙ For example, publishing an editorial on
environmental policy immediately following a
report on unprecedented climate change.
Rhetorical Strategies
∙ These strategies are how an author makes their appeals
to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos.
∙ The best way of identifying and analysing an author’s
rhetorical strategy is to consider PASTA.
P.A.S.T.A
∙ Purpose
∙ Author
∙ Setting
∙ Text
∙ Audience
Purpose
what the Author hopes to achieve
1. Why did the author decide to create or join the
conversation about the topic?
2. What does the author want from their audience?
➢ Remember, every text is trying to: Inform, Convince,
Define, Announce and/or Activate a debate or discussion.
3. What does the Author want the audience to do
once the text is communicated?
Author
the identity of the author, their relationship with
the audience, and their voice in the text
They might be an individual speaking for themselves, or
either one or many individuals speaking on behalf of an
organisation.
➢ What experience or authority do they have?
➢ What do they value?
➢ How invested are they, and what biases affect
their perspective?
Setting
the time and place of the text
∙ Affects the context of a message & its meaning
∙ PLACE: What country was the text created in?
∙ FORMAT: How could an online text be understood
differently than one printed in a paper/magazine? Are
there different expectations?
∙ TIME: When was the text made, relative to its discussion?
∙ Is there a degree of Kairos in its timing?
∙ When a speaker doesn’t take Kairos into consideration,
their message may fail.
∙ An example of this is Cinnabon’s Twitter message about
Carrie Fisher in 2016, the day she died.
∙ Though it was a tribute, people know that Cinnabon’s
Twitter account is designed to sell cinnamon rolls.
∙ Had they released the same message at a more
opportune time, it may have been an effective
marketing decision.
∙ As it is, their message had the opposite effect—it
enraged people. So, they had to delete the tweet and
apologise.
Setting
the time and place of the text
∙ Where was the text expected to be read? What aspects of location
might influence its meaning?
∙ Where is the text published? What medium or genre or publication?
∙ What context, historically speaking, needs to be known to understand
it?
∙ Was there a debate that the author addresses? If so, what are/were
the various perspectives?
∙ Did something occur that motivated the author to speak out?
∙ How is the text timely (or not), taking into account the Kairos of the
situation?
Text
presentation and aesthetics
∙ What is gained by having a text composed in a particular way?
∙ What are the usual expectations of its genre/medium?
∙ What limitations does that have?
∙ What opportunities for expression does that genre/medium have
(that perhaps others do not have?)
∙ How does the language used affect the audience’s understanding of
the text?
∙ What is the register of the word choice?
∙ What style and organization choices were made and how do they
affect the presentation of the text as a whole?
Audience
any text has at least three
∙ The Intended Audience: who the author intended to
read the text. Can be determined through the Setting
and Purpose.
∙ The Implied Audience: who the text seems to be
addressing. This is usually more obvious in literary
texts—for example, a poet might be referencing a lover.
In non-literary texts, this is usually indicated by the use
of certain pronouns (‘we’, for example).
∙ The Actual Audience: who actually read the text. Often,
a text moves beyond the intended and implied
audience to people whom the author may not expect.
This is particularly true of older texts.
Audience
∙ Who is the author addressing?
∙ Be sure to pay attention to where the text is published: often, you can
research that publication to get a good sense of who reads it.
∙ What is the audience’s demographic (age, gender, etc.)?
∙ What are the background, values, interests of the intended
audience?
∙ How open is this intended audience to the author?
∙ What assumptions might the audience make about the
author?
∙ In what context is the audience receiving the text?
Time to Assess Two Articles
∙ Newspapers: The Guardian and The Australian
∙ Both written in 2023
∙ Both concerning the Voice referendum
∙ Each argue a different perspective.
Purpose Author Setting Text Audience
What assumptions can you make about each text, before reading it?
The Australian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Australian
The Guardian
The Australian