Engineering Geology

GEO 262.3

ANIL GHIMIRE

Education
• Bsc. Geology-2073
• Msc. Engineering Geology -2076

IOST, TU
 Revision
• What is site investigation. Explain its method.
• How can you investigate the dam and reservoir.
• Explain about the geological consideration for the
selection of tunnel.
• Explain brief about the underground structures.
Explain the support system in the tunnel.
• Explain the geological documentation during
tunnel.
• Why the site investigation is important for the civil
engineer ?
 Chapter 5
Geological Hazards
•Introduction
•Major geological Hazards: Flood, GLOF, erosion,
mass movement and their Causes
•Types of mass movements
•Earthquake and seismicity
•Structural control on geo-hazards
•Geological hazard in soil mass and rock mass
•Engineering evaluation of geological hazard and risks
problem specific hazards mapping and mitigation
measures
 Hazard and its types
• Basically, a hazard is the potential for harm or an
adverse effect (for example, to people as health effects,
to organizations as property or equipment losses, or to
the environment).
• Hazard is defined as a dangerous phenomenon,
substance, human activity or condition that may cause
loss of life, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
• According to Varne’s, ”Hazard is defined as the
probability of occurrence of the potentially damaging
phenomenon within a specific period of time within a
given area”.
 Hazards- Types
• Geological: These are naturally occurring or man made
geological conditions resulting in loss of life and
property. They may occur slowly or suddenly.
• Climatic: These are hazards resulting due to change in
atmospheric patterns and conditions. They are
generally caused by wind velocity, precipitation,
temperature,humidity,etc.
• Environmental: Any single or combination of toxic
agents in the environment resulting due to human
activities or natural process impacting the health of
people are environmental hazards.
• Industrial: Hazards created due to industrial process.
Example: explosions, fire,nuclear reaction,etc
 Effects of Hazards
• Primary: Directly results of the events like
volcano, earthquake, ground motion etc.
Example: landslide
• Secondary: Associate with but not a direct
response to the event like landslide tsunami
etc.
Example: Disruption of sewer system as a
result of earthquakes
• Tertiary: Long term or permanent changes due
to event like change in topography, climate
change, habitat loss etc.
Example: Loss of habitat by flood
 Factors determining the Consequences of
hazards
• Duration
• Magnitude
• Predictability
• Regularity
• Frequency
• Spatial concentration
• Areal extent
• Number of hazards
Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters
It is the characteristics and circumstances of a
community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising
from various physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors. Examples may include
poor design and construction of buildings,
inadequate protection of assets, lack of public
information and awareness, limited official
recognition of risks and preparedness measures,
and disregard for wise environmental
management.
 Risk
• Risk is the combination of the probability of
an event and its negative consequences. In
technical settings the emphasis is usually
placed on the consequences, in terms of
“potential losses” for some particular cause,
place and period.
• Risk= hazard* Exposure
 Vulnerability
Vulnerability refers the way a hazard or disaster will
affect human life and property. Vulnerability to a given
hazard depends upon following factors:
• Proximity to a possible hazardous event
• Population density in the area proximal to the event
• Scientific understanding of the hazard
• Public education and awareness of the hazard
• Existence or non-existence of early-warning systems
and lines of communication
• Availability and readiness of emergency infrastructure
• Construction styles and building codes
• Cultural factors that influence public response to
warnings
 Factors of Geological Hazards
• Lithology of an area
• Ground water condition
• Rainfall
• Geotechnical properties of soil
• Weathering of rock
• Natural slope
• Vegetation or land cover
• Climate change
• Erosion by streams, glaciers, etc.
 Most common geological factors
causing hazards in Nepal
• Fragile and steep topography
• Geological diversity
• Geological structures
• Active tectonics of Himalaya
• Groundwater condition
• Degree of weathering
• Unplanned urbanization
• Improper construction activities
 Major geological Hazards: Flood
• Nepal is the second highest country at risk of floods
in South Asia (UNDP, 2009). Regular flooding,
• Predominantly in the monsoon season, results in
significant loss of life, property, and livelihoods.
• Flood refers to the unusual rise in water level in
rivers/ streams which submerges the land that is
usually dry.
 Causes of Flood
• Heavy Rainfall
• Overflowing rivers
• Broken dams
• High tides and Tsunamis
• Channels with steep sides
• Lack of vegetation
• Melting of snow and ice
 Impacts of Flood
• Does flooding have any positive impact?

Positive Impacts
• Recharges Groundwater
• Shapes the land structures
• Deposits valuable nutrients in the soil
• Cleansing of banks as well as river beds
• Helps in maintaining floodplain biodiversity
 Major geological Hazards: GlOF
• A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood, or GLOF, is
sudden release of water from a lake fed by
glacier melt that has formed at the side, in front,
within, beneath, or on the surface of a glacier.
• GLOF can be impounded by moraine complexes,
glacial ice or even bedrock and, as a result of,
slope failure, overtopping or other failure
mechanisms, lead to catastrophic phenomena in
the high mountains that threaten people’s lives,
livelihoods and regional infrastructure.
 Causes of GLOF

• Rapid slope movement into the lake.

• Heavy rainfall/snowmelt.
• Cascading processes (flood from a lake
situated upstream)
• Earthquake.
• Melting of ice incorporated in dam/forming
the dam (including volcanic activity)
 Impact of GLOF
• A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a release of
melt water from a moraine- or ice-dam glacial lake
due to dam failure
• GLOFs often result in catastrophic flooding
downstream, with major geomorphic and
socioeconomic impacts
• GLOFs are low-frequency events, resulting disasters
have caused enormous loss and damage to lives,
livestock, property, infrastructure, and the
environment in downstream regions.
 Major geological Hazards: Erosion
• Erosion is a geomorphic process that detaches and
removes material (soil, rock debris, and associated
organic matter) from its primary location by some
natural erosive agents or through human or animal
activity.
• Natural agents of erosion include water, wind,
glaciers, snow, sea/lake waves, and gravity (as a
constant force on unstable slopes)
• Besides these, human activity can also be the cause
for erosion processes. Erosion can be either
mechanical or chemical (e.g., corrosion).
• Erosive agents transport material either by traction
(rolling, sliding, pushing)
 Causes of erosion
• Water.: Water is the most common cause of
soil erosion.
• Wind: Wind can also make soil erode by
displacing it.
• Ice
• Gravity
 Effect of Erosion
• Dams and embankments—if dispersible soils are not compacted
properly during construction, air voids occur. Water can easily get
into these void spaces and cause dispersion of the surrounding
soil. Small ‘pipes’ can form which quickly develop into tunnels. This
has been known to cause piping and bank failure within a few
hours when a new dam is filled for the first time.
• Road and tracks—bitumen and concrete readily produce runoff. To
build roads, the land has to be disturbed, so erosion
and siltation can occur if special stabilising techniques are not
used.
• Urban developments—can cause severe soil erosion if the land is
unsuitable to be built on and developments run through existing
drainage lines.
• Mining and exploration activities—interfere with the natural
drainage of the landscape which can cause erosion and siltation of
waterways. Mining exploration requires the development of
hundreds of kilometres of tracks and roads from which vegetation
is cleared, leaving the soil more vulnerable to erosion.
Major Geological Hazards
• wind, rain, rivers and streams, and human
activity continually modify the earth’s surface.
Geologic Hazards are naturally occurring (or
man-made) geologic conditions capable of
causing damage or loss of property and/or life.
Geologic Hazards Mitigation is the application
of geologic engineering principles to minimize
or prevent the effects of naturally occurring
geologic hazards.
Geologic hazards
Sudden phenomena include:

• EARTHQUAKES - LIQUEFACTION
(SOILS), TSUNAMIS
• VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS - LAVA FLOWS, ASH
FALL,
• LANDSLIDES - ROCK FALLS OR SLIDES, DEBRIS
FLOWS, MUD FLOWS
• FLOODS - INUNDATION, EROSION
• SNOW AVALANCHES
 Gradual or slow developing geologic
phenomena include:

• GROUND SETTLEMENT
• GROUND SUBSIDENCE OR COLLAPSE
• SINKHOLES
• EROSION (STREAM OR SHORELINE)
• Geologic hazards can play a significant role
when infrastructure is constructed in their
presence. The unpredictable nature of natural
geologic hazards makes identifying, evaluating, and
mitigating against them a unique challenge. The
best geologic mitigation strategy is always
avoidance. When avoiding a hazard is not possible
however, mitigation strategies must be developed
to coexist (mitigate) with the hazard. The geological
and engineering expertise people interpreting
landforms and earth processes, evaluating earth-
structure interaction and providing geologic hazards
mitigation consulting or design services for:
• AVALANCHE MITIGATION - HAZARD AREA IDENTIFICATION, HYDRODYNAMIC
MODELING (RUN-OUT ANALYSES), RETENTION AND DEFLECTION
STRUCTURES, PLANNING, PERMITTING

• LANDSLIDES (DEBRIS AND MUDFLOWS, ROCK FALL) - IDENTIFICATION, MONITORING,

MODELING, FORENSICS, MITIGATION

• SLOPE STABILIZATION - RETAINING WALLS, MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH, SOIL

AND ROCK ANCHORS (BOLTS), GABIONS, EARTH BUTTRESSES

• GROUND IMPROVEMENT - GROUTING PROGRAMS, DYNAMIC COMPACTION, SLURRY

WALLS, SUBTERRANEAN DEWATERING, SEISMIC DESIGN (LIQUEFACTION)

• FLOODING - PROBABILITY, INUNDATION STUDIES, PREDICTIVE MODELING, EROSION

PREVENTION
 Mass Movement
Mass Movement denote the downward
and outward movements of slope
forming materials under the influence of
gravity due to various processes.
 Landslide
• This term is commonly used to denote the
downward and outward movements of slope
forming materials along the surface of
separation (slip surface) under the influence
of gravity due to various reasons.
Parts of Landslide
 Parts of Landslide
1. Crown: The practically undisplaced material still in place and adjacent to the highest parts
of the main scarp.

2. Main Scarp: A steep surface on the undisturbed ground at the upper edge of the landslide,
caused by movement of the displaced material away from the undisturbed ground. It is the
visible part if the surface of rupture.

3. Head: The upper parts of the landslide along the contact between the displaced material
and the main scarp.

4. Minor Scarp: A steep surface on the displaced material of the landslide produced by
differential movements within the displaced material.

5. Main Body: The part of the displaced material of the landslide that overlies the surface of
rupture between the main scarp and the toe of the surface of rupture.

6. Foot: The portion of the landslide that has moved beyond the toe of the surface of rupture
and overlies the original ground surface.

7. Toe: The lower, usually curved margin of the displaced material of a landslide, it is the most
distant from the main scarp.
 Landslide

Table : Varnes’ classification of slope movements (Varnes, 1978).

GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003

 [Link], 2017
GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003
 Falls
• Abrupt movements of slope materials that are
detached from steep slopes or cliffs.
• Movement by free fall or a series of leaps and
bounds down the steep slopes.
• There is lack of slide plane.
• It can be rock fall, soil fall, debris fall, earth
fall, boulder fall and so on depending on the
type of slope material involved.
Falls are abrupt movements of
masses of geologic materials
that become detached from
steep slopes of cliffs
Debris Fall
 Topples
• A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward on
a pivot ( a central point) and then separates
from the main mass falling on the slope and
subsequently bouncing or rolling down the
slope.
Toppling Failure

[Link], 2017
 Slides
• It refers to the mass movements with a
distinct surface of rupture or zone of
weakness (slip surface) separating the slide
material from more stable underlying
materials.
• Two types of slides:
Rotational
Translational
 Rotational slides
• Occur on slopes of homogeneous clay or shale
and soil slopes.
• The slide movement is more or less rotational
about an axis that is parallel to the contour of
the slope.
• Scarp at the head may be almost vertical.
• Rotational slide is one in which the surface of rupture is
curved concavely upward and movement is more or less
rotational about an axis above the slope slide.
 Translational slides
• Slides on a more or less planar surface
• Movement is controlled by surfaces of
weakness like bedding planes, joints, faults
etc.
• Slide materials may range from loose
unconsolidated soils to slabs of rocks.
 Block slides
Are type of translational slides in which the moving mass consists of a
single unit of rock block.
FLOWS
Flows are the down slope movement of unconsolidated material in
which the material behaves like a viscous fluid. Flows can be very slow
or can be exceedingly fast.
Creep
A type of flow. Imperceptibly
slow, steady, downward
movement of slope forming soil or
rock.
Example: trees on a slope where
the base of each tree bows
outward in the down slope
direction
GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003
Creep, Jharkot village, near Muktinath

[Link], 2014
 Influence of TIME on the development of a landslide:
progressive creep (left) and progressive wetting (right).
3
Water
Road fill
Rate of Creep

Culvert
2
Wetting events
Soil
1 1
2
3 Rock
4
Time FAILURE
3 3
FAILURE FAILURE

Safety Factor
Safety Factor

2
2

1
1
Wetting events

1 2 3 4
Time Time
GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003
 EFFECT OF WATER
Perched water table decreases slope stability by causing
temporary increase in pore water pressure which reduces
shear strength in the earth material.

Figure from Keller (2000)

Colluvial soil;
relatively
permeable.

Bedrock;
low permeability.

GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003

 Flows
Debris flow:
• A form of rapid movement involving loose soil, rocks and
organic materials along with air and water forming a
slurry and flows downward.
Conditions for debris flow to occur:
 Steep slopes
 Loose rock and soil materials
 Clay minerals
 Saturated soils
 Rainfall or snowmelt generated runoff of sufficient
intensity and duration initiating slope movements.
Debris Flow
 Flows
Debris Avalanche
It is a very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
Figures from Keller (2000)

[Link], 2005
S. Hughes, 2003
 Flows
Earth flows
• Have a characteristic bowl like depression at
the head where slope material becomes
liquefied and flows out.
• Usually flow is channelized on the slope and
spreads out at the toe.
• Flow occurs in a fine grained materials or
clayey rocks under saturated conditions.
[Link], 2014
 Flows
Mudflows
• Type of earth flow consisting of materials about 50
% of sand, silt and clay sized particles that are well
saturated and flow rapidly.
Spreads
• Failure caused by liquefaction.
• Liquefaction is the process by which saturated,
loose, cohesion less sediments are transformed into
a liquefied state.
• Rapid ground motions like earthquake usually
trigger the failure.
 SUBSIDENCE
Depression
• The result of subsidence. By definition, subsidence is the very slow to
rapid sinking or settling of the land surface.
Subsidence can be the result of natural causes.
Some type of carbonate rock underlies topography containing numerous
natural depressions, known as sinkholes. The topography is known as
karst topography.
Limestone and dolomite, both carbonate rocks, are soluble and
susceptible to chemical weathering. Chemical weathering produces void
spaces (very very small to cavernously large). Sinkholes result when
enough "support" has been removed from the carbonate layer. The
surface then collapses into the void space, producing a sinkhole.

GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003

Sinkhole in Karst
Topography

GEOL g406 Environmental Geology S. Hughes, 2003

 Earthquake and Seismicity
• An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of
the Earth resulting from a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's lithosphere that
creates seismic waves.

• Seismic waves: Primary, Secondary

 Magnitude and Intensity
Magnitude measures the energy released at the
source of the earthquake.
Magnitude is determined from measurements
on seismographs.
Intensity measures the strength of shaking
produced by the earthquake at a certain
location.
Magnitude / Intensity Comparison
• The following table gives intensities that are
typically observed at locations near the epicenter
of earthquakes of different magnitudes.

MagnitudeTypical Maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity

• 1.0 – 3.0 ………………………………………….I
• 3.0 – 3.9………………………………………….II – III
• 4.0 – 4.9………………………………………....IV – V
• 5.0 – 5.9………………………………………….VI – VII
• 6.0 – 6.9…………………………………........VII – IX
• 7.0 and higher……………………………….VIII or higher
 Seismicity
• Seismicity is the study of the relationship between the earthquakes,
active tectonics and individual faults of a region

• Sources of evidence:
 regional tectonics,
 instrumentally recorded events,
 accounts of historical earthquakes
 Geomorphological evidences

• Seismotectonic study is useful to quantify the seismic hazard of the

region
The Regional information of the specific location is the seismic
information. Such information like,
•published geological maps,
• research publications on the geological structure and seismic
reflection profiles,
• geophysical data
To reduce seismic risk, we should know:
• determine the location of potentially active faults
• the orientation of the stress field
Instrumental seismic record data can be determine use of
seismometers to calculate the location, depth and magnitude of
earthquakes
• recording the locations of aftershocks generally gives a strong
indication of the strike of the fault.
• use of teleseismic data
From the Historical Information in the specific location, the seismic
information can be determine like,
• earthquake data of long period of time so far as possible. For this
exact seismic information ,
• Reliable data is important
• the location and magnitude of the event are important
From this information, we can analyze or predict the return period,
energy storage and possible future events
From the Geomorphological information like, active faults and fold
shape in the area also suggest the some tectonic effect occur in there.
Through this
• previously not identified faults can also be known
• Unusual landslides without effect of rainfall or current earthquake
• Unusual break in the topography, aligned springs
 Seismicity in the Nepal Himalaya
Distribution of
major earthquakes
during last century

• During the last century, four earthquakes with magnitude around 8.5
occurred in Himalaya: 1897, 1905, 1934 and 1950, but the central
Himalaya of Nepal was not active during this period
• The 1905 Kangra earthquake produced severe damage in the Kangra
area and, about 100 km to the east, in the Dehra Dun area
 Seismicity in the Nepal Himalaya
• The 1934 Bihar Nepal earthquake probably ruptured a 200-300 km
long segment to the east of Kathmandu
• Historical records indicate that the Kathmandu valley has experienced
recurring large earthquakes in 1255, 1408, 1681, 1803, 1810, 1833, 1866
and 1934
• No very large earthquake seems to have struck Far-western and
Western Nepal over the past few centuries. This portion of the arc thus
stands as a potential location for the next large Himalayan earthquake,
unless the seismotectonic behavior of that area is very diff€
erent
• Nepal is characterized by a very intense microseismic activity.
•Some 11,000 (magnitude above 2.0 ) local and regional events have
been recorded and processed over the two and half years of operation
of the National Network. According to the record information ,whole
area is seismically active,but Due Significant lateral variations, micro
seismic activity is particularly intense in Eastern and FarWestern Nepal.
Seismicity in the Nepal Himalaya
Microseismicity map of Nepal monitored between
May 1994 and January 1998.
 Seismicity in the Nepal Himalaya
• The major active fault along the Himalaya is the Main Frontal
Thrust that marks the southern edge of the Himalayan foothills
• The analysis of folded Holocene terraces along the Bagmati and
Bakeya rivers, south of Kathmandu, implies a slip rate on the MFT of
21.522 mm/yr
• Other active faults have been identified in Nepal but they are
probably of secondary importance as seismic hazards
• Evidence for recent motion along MBT was found mainly in
Western Nepal (Nakata, 1989). Nakata also found evidence for right-
lateral strike-slip motion along Darma-Bari Gad fault system in
Western Nepal
Seismicity in the Nepal Himalaya
Structural Control on Geo-Hazards
• The hazards resulted due to the geological
features and processes, that present several
threats to humans, property and environment.
• Example: Earthquake, flood, landslide, erosion,
etc.

Engineering Protection Structures

• For earthquake protection
• For landslide protection
• For erosion protection
• Rock fall protection
• Flood protection
 Geological hazards in soil mass
• Soil erosion
• Debris flow
• Mudflow
• Earth flow
• Creep
• Lateral spreads
• Slump

Geological hazard in rock mass

• Rock fall
• Rock topple
• Rock slide
• Rock avalanche
Engineering Evaluation of geological hazard and Risk
problem, Specific Hazard Mapping and Mitigation Measures
• Hazard assessment is defined as, "The process of
studying the nature of natural /manmade hazards
determining its essential features (degree of severity,
duration, extent of the impact, area) and their
relationship".
• The hazards are preliminarily recognized and the nature
of the hazard is identified with the characterization of
how severe the hazard is, and what are the areas and
categories which is affected by the hazard along with
determination of the impact that the hazard has
created on socio-economic aspects.
• The hazard assessment approach may be qualitative,
quantitative, probabilistic or deterministic.
 Framework for hazard assessment
1. Identify the hazardous processes occurred in the
past
2. Determine the severity of the physical effects of
past hazardous processes(magnitude)
3. Determine the frequency of occurrence of
hazardous process
4. Deducing the likely effects of a process of a given
magnitude if it were to occur now
5. Making all this information available in the form
of useful to planners and public officials
responsible for making decisions in event of a
disaster.
 Geological hazards can be assessed by
• Preparation of geological map
• Study of the historical hazard events.
• Preparation of hazard map
• Calculation of risk
• Public awareness and capacity building program
 Hazard map
• Map giving information about the areas that are
affected or are to be affected by a particular hazard.
• It helps in providing information about the risk and
vulnerability to the hazard which helps in
preventing loss of life and property.
• It provides a measure for the government or local
level for prioritization to the specific hazard.
 Geological hazard evaluation and mitigation
• Geological hazards are evaluated by engineering
geologists who are educated and skilled in
interpretation of geomorphology, interaction
between earth and structures present and in hazard
mitigation.
• An engineering geologist provides
recommendations and necessary designs to
mitigate hazards.
• Proper training on hazard mitigation also helps the
local community to identify major hazards for
further mitigation.
 Mitigation for geological hazards
• Construction of engineering structures like dams,
leavees, gabion wall,etc.
• Protection of shorelines and streams by
engineering structures
• The strength of soil or rock may be improved by
mixing other aggregates
• Additional mitigation may include construction of
mega structures like deep foundations, tunnels
surface and sub surface drain,etc.
• Proper building code adoption in hazard prone
areas.
 Risk Assessment
• It involves assessment of hazard along with the study
on socio-economic aspects.
• Risk assessment involves; Hazard assessment
preliminarily, Location of elements at risk subjected
to hazards Potential exposure to the physical effects
of a hazardous situation

Vulnerability of an area when subjected to hazard, then

• Risk assessment helps the decision makers to compare
and evaluate possible or probable hazards
• Helps to set priorities on mitigation measures and
where to focus for study
Thank you