+D=FJAH%

Dynamics of Single Degree

of Freedom Systems

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapter we have noted that from the considerations of conservation of energy
any vibrating system will, in general, have three constituents: (i) a mechanism to store the
kinetic energy, which is also responsible for the generation of inertia force; (ii) a mechanism
for energy dissipation/loss; and (iii) a mechanism to store the potential energy, responsible for
the elastic restoring force in the vibrating system. In the simplest possible idealisation of a
vibrating system, these three mechanisms may be considered to be lumped into discrete elements
as shown in Figure 6.3. The mass/inertia element(m) stores the kinetic energy, the spring
element (k) stores the potential energy, the dashpot (c) represents the viscous damper for
dissipation/loss of energy, and F(t) is an external time varying force. The system shown in
Figure 7.1 is a Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system because it is only required to monitor
a single quantity, viz., the movement of the mass (m), to completely describe the vibration of
the system. In general the number of independent displacements required to define the displaced
positions of all the masses relative to their original position is called the number of degrees of
freedom for vibration analysis. A single degree of freedom (SDOF) system is the simplest
possible mathematical model in structural dynamics.

x(t)

k fS
m F(t) fI F(t)

c fD

FIGURE 7.1 Single degree of freedom system (SDOF).

The motion of the mass m is governed by Newton’s second law of motion. In order to
derive the governing equation of motion, let us consider the various forces acting on the mass
m as shown in the accompanying Free Body Diagram (FBD). The forces fS and fD represent the
115
 116 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

elastic restoring force and the force developed in the damper, respectively. These forces, along
with the external force F(t) act on the mass (m), which then cause the change in momentum of
the mass in accordance with Newton’s second law as,
d
( mx
) = F(t) – fS – fD (7.1)
dt
where, x(t) denotes the displacement of mass m from its original position of rest. For the special
case of civil engineering structures, the mass of the system does not change with time, and there-
fore, the rate of change of momentum can be considered to have the same effect as that of
applying a fictitious inertia force fI directed opposite to the direction of motion for considering
the instantaneous equilibrium of forces acting on the mass. This simplified interpretation of
Newton’s second law of motion (valid only when the mass of the system is time invariant) is
popularly known as the d’Alembert’s principle.
fI = F(t) – fS – fD (7.2)
Thus the inertia force fI = m


x (mass ¥ acceleration), spring force fS = kx (spring constant
¥ spring deformation) and damping force fD = c x
(coefficient of viscous damping ¥ relative
velocity between the two ends of the dashpot).1 By substituting these relations in Equation (7.2),
we get,
m


x + c x
+ kx = F(t) (7.3)
Equation (7.3) is a linear second order differential equation with constant parameters. The
general solution for this equation is given by,
x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t) (7.4)
where, xh(t) is the solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation obtained by making the
right hand side zero; and xp(t) is the particular solution which depends on the specific form of
applied force F(t). The homogeneous solution of this second order differential equation contains
two arbitrary constants which can be evaluated by using the initial conditions x(0) and x
(0),
i.e., the displacement and velocity of the mass at the onset of vibration.

7.2 FREE VIBRATION OF VISCOUS-DAMPED

SDOF SYSTEMS
For a particular case when there is no external force acting on the system, it is still possible
to make the mass vibrate by giving some arbitrary initial conditions. The ensuing motion of

1
This is only a convenient mathematical model for the energy dissipation mechanism in a vibrating system and is
actually an expression of the viscous drag in a laminar flow. In real structural systems, energy dissipation actually
takes place in different ways and the most important of them is the energy loss due to inter-granular friction
between the particles of a vibrating system. However, incorporating a dry friction damping behaviour would
result in a nonlinear equation of motion. Since the magnitude of damping force is generally very small in
comparison to the other forces acting on the system, a viscous damping model (leading to a linear equation!)
serves well to get a rational estimate of system response for engineering design.
 +D=FJAH % Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 117

the mass is then termed as the free vibration and is given by the solution of differential
equation

m


x + c x
+ kx = 0
or, x + 2zwn x
+ w 2n x = 0


(7.5)

where, wn is defined by w 2n = k/m and z is defined by z = c/ccr with ccr = 2mwn = 2k/m = 2 km .
The constant wn is called the undamped circular natural frequency, measured in rad/s; z is a
dimensionless quantity called the viscous damping factor; and ccr is called the critical damping
coefficient. The parameters wn and z play important roles in determining the response of SDOF
systems.
In order to determine the solution of Equation (7.5), let us assume a solution in the form
x(t) = Xelt. Substituting this assumed solution in the governing equation yields a characteristic
equation
l2 + 2zwnl + w 2n = 0 (7.6)
which has the roots at

l1,2 = –zwn ± wn z 2 - 1 (7.7)

The magnitude of the damping factor (z) can be used to distinguish three cases: under-
damped (0 < z < 1), critically damped (z = 1), and overdamped (z > 1). Figure 7.2 illustrates
the response for these three cases. For the underdamped case the motion is oscillatory in nature
with a decaying amplitude. For the overdamped case there is no oscillation, and amplitude
decays slowly. For the critically damped system there is no oscillation, and the amplitude decays
more rapidly than in either the underdamped or overdamped cases.
1.2
Underdamped
1.0 Critically damped
Overdamped
0.8
0.6
Displacement

0.4
0.2
0.0
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)
FIGURE 7.2 Response of single degree of freedom systems.
 118 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

7.2.1 Underdamped Case (z < 1)

For z < 1, it is convenient to write Equation (7.7) in the form

l 1,2 = –zwn ± iwn 1 2 - z

= –zwn ± iwd (7.8)
where wd is known as the damped circular natural frequency. Using Euler’s formula, the general
solution, x(t), can be written in the form,
x(t) = e–zwt (A1 cos wd t + A2 sin wd t) (7.9)
The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined from the initial conditions x(t = 0) = x0 and x
(t = 0)
= x
0 and the solution is then given by

LM
x(t) = e–zw n t x 0 cos w d t +
FG x
0 + z w n x0IJ
sin w d t
OP (7.10)
N H wd K Q
Although the value of z has an effect on the frequency wd, the most pronounced effect of
damping is on the rate at which the motion dies out, that is, on the e–zw n t term.

7.2.2 Critically-damped Case (z = 1)

When z = 1, the Equation (7.7) gives only one solution as l = –wn. The response for the case
of repeated roots is then given by
x(t) = e–w n t(A1 + A2 t) (7.11)
where, A1 and A2 are determined from the initial conditions x0 and x
0 . The solution in terms
of the initial conditions can be derived as,
x(t) = e–w n t [x0(1 + w n t) + x
0 t ] (7.12)
The free-vibration response of a critically damped system does not involve oscillations about
the zero-displacement position, instead the system returns to zero-displacement position
asymptotically by virtue of the decayed exponential term of Equation (7.12). However, there
will be precisely one crossing of the zero-displacement position if the initial displacement and
initial velocity were of opposite signs.

7.2.3 Overdamped Case (z > 1)

For z > 1, the Equation (7.7) gives two distinct, negative real roots. The solution is then given
by,
x(t) = e–zw n t (A1 cosh w*t + A2 sinh w*t)

FG x
0 + z w n x 0 IJ
= e–zw n t x 0 cosh w *t + sinh w * t (7.13)
H w* K
 +D=FJAH % Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 119

where, w* = w n z 2 - 1 and the coefficients A1 and A2 are determined from the initial conditions
x0 and x
0 . The trend is similar to that for the critically damped systems except that the system
returns to the zero-position more slowly.

Practical utility of free vibration analysis

Although the preceding discussion has been fairly mathematical in nature, the basic concepts
presented there in have immense practical utility. A point in the case is the experimental
determination of dynamic characteristics (i.e., natural frequency and damping) of real
structures. The dynamic parameters, so estimated, can serve as a valuable check for validating
the mathematical model of the structure and verify some of the modelling assumptions. Figure
7.3 shows a comparison between the free vibration response recorded during an actual test and
that for a mathematical model using viscous damping model for the same set of parameters. Note
the similarity in the general trend of response even though the two curves differ in detail. The
response from the viscously damped model is a simplified representation of actual behaviour
which is a combined effect of several different energy loss mechanisms simultaneously at work.

1.0 1.0
0.8 f = 2.58 Hz 0.8 f = 2.58 Hz
0.6 z = 2.85% 0.6 z = 2.85%
Normalized amplitude

Normalized amplitude

0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
–0.2 –0.2
–0.4 –0.4
–0.6 –0.6
–0.8 –0.8
–1.0 –1.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.3 Free vibration response (a) from field test data, and (b) theoretical curve for
viscously damped system.

The determination of (damped) natural frequency follows from its definition and is
estimated by determining the number of cycles completed in the vibration record per unit time.
The determination of damping from free vibration records, unfortunately, is not so straight-
forward. However, the procedure does simplify a lot, if we decide to ascribe energy loss to only
one damping mechanism. For example, assuming viscous damping behaviour the equivalent
viscous damping parameter may be estimated by using the method of logarithmic decrement. Let

us consider any two positive peaks xn and xn+1 which occur at times n
FG 2p IJ and (n + 1) 2p ,
Hw K d w d
respectively. The ratio of these two amplitudes is given by using Equation (7.10)

xn
= exp
FG
2pzw n IJ (7.14)
x n+1 wdH K
 120 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

By taking the natural logarithm of both sides and substituting for wd, we get,

xn 2pz
d = ln = (7.15)
x n+1 1-z 2
where, d is known as the logarithmic decrement. In practice it is more convenient to measure
the peak-to-trough amplitudes instead of peaks or troughs due to the absence of zero baseline
in the experimental records. It can be shown that the same result for logarithmic decrement
(as in Equation (7.15)) also holds for peak-to-trough amplitudes. Further, in the case of lightly
damped systems, it might be more convenient to measure amplitudes which spaced a few
cycles (say, m) apart. It can be shown that in this case the equation for logarithmic decrement
changes to
xn 2 mpz
d= =
xn+m 1-z2
which is commonly used in practice.

7.3 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF SDOF SYSTEMS

The dynamical systems may be set into motion by several types of excitations. These forcing
functions may either be harmonic or non-harmonic, periodic or aperiodic, etc. Further, the
response may also differ on account of the duration of exposure to the applied excitation. The
nature of the response of a SDOF system to harmonic excitation is significantly different from
that for a finite duration excitation. We shall begin with the response of SDOF systems excited
by harmonic excitations, which has great practical significance since any periodic function can
be decomposed into a sum of harmonic functions by using Fourier series2. The results of this
section have an important bearing on the design of vibration recording instruments, industrial
vibration isolators, and shock absorbers.

7.3.1 Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Excitations

The governing differential equation for a SDOF system as shown in Figure 2.1 with F(t) =
F0 sin wt is given by,
x + c x
+ kx = F0 sin wt
m

(7.16)
Let us assume the initial conditions given as x0 and x
0 . Moreover, the particular solution of this

2
Under a fairly general set of conditions, any periodic function f(t) can be expressed as:

f (t) = a0 +
•
 FH a j cos j 2pt + b j sin j 2pt IK
T T
j =1

where T is the period of f (t). For more details consult any text on Applied Mathematics, such as, E. Kreyszig,
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Interscience.
 +D=FJAH % Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 121

equation will be harmonic of the same frequency as that of the excitation albeit with a phase
lag. Thus the particular solution (or, steady-state response) is given by,
xp(t) = X sin (wt – f) (7.17)
where, X is the steady-state amplitude and f is the phase angle of the steady-state response
relative to the excitation. The determination of these two parameters of the steady-state response
is facilitated by the use of rotating vectors as shown in Figure 7.4. It can be readily established
from the Figure 7.4 that
Im
F 20 = (kX – w 2mX)2 + (wcX)2, and (7.18)
wc
tan f = (7.19) w 2mX
k - w 2m
wcX
This can be rewritten as, F0

X 1 kX
Ds = = , and (7.20) wt
X st [(1 - h 2 ) 2 + (2zh) 2 ]1/ 2
wt – f
2zh Real
tan f = (7.21)
1 - h2 FIGURE 7.4 Force polygon.

where, Xst = F0 /k is the static deflection if the force F0 was applied statically, h = w/wn is known
as the tuning ratio and z is the damping ratio defined earlier. The steady-state magnification
factor Ds and the phase angle f are plotted in Figure 7.5. From Equations (7.17) to (7.21) and
Figure 7.5 the following significant features of steady-state response can be observed:
(i) the motion described by Equation (7.17) is harmonic and is of the same frequency as
the excitation.

1.06 3.5

1.04 3.0
[(1 – h2)2 + (2zh)2]–1/2

Phase angle (f, in rad)

2.5
1.02
2.0
1.00
1.5
0.98
1.0
0.96 0.5
0.94 0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0 2 3 4 5
Frequency ratio (h) Frequency ratio (h)
z = 0.00 z = 0.60 z = 0.65 z = 0.00 z = 0.50
z = 0.70 z = 0.75 z = 0.70 z = 1.00
FIGURE 7.5 Magnification and phase of response of SDOF system to different excitation
frequencies.
 122 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

(ii) The amplitude of the steady-state response is a function of the amplitude and frequency
of the excitation as well as that of the natural frequency and damping factor of the
system. The steady-state magnification factor can be considerably greater than unity or
less than unity.
(iii) The steady-state response xp(t) = X sin (wt – f) and the excitation F(t) = F0 sin wt,
are not in phase, that is, they do not attain their maximum values at the same instant.
The response lags the excitation by a phase angle f. This corresponds to a time lag of
f/w.
(iv) At resonance, h = 1, the amplitude is limited only by the damping force, and (Ds)h=1
= 1/2z. Also, at resonance the response lags excitation by 90°.
The total response of the SDOF system can be given by superimposing the homogeneous
solution on the particular solution (x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t)). The homogeneous solution is the free-
vibration solution as derived earlier. The unknown parameters in the homogeneous solution can
be determined by imposing the initial conditions on the total response solution of the SDOF
system. Since the homogeneous part of the solution gradually decays with time—in a damped
system—it is referred to as starting transient.

7.3.2 Excitation by Base Motion

Let us now consider the situation when the external force acting on the mass is F(t) = 0. Instead
the support point is moving as xg(t) = Xg sin wt. Let xm(t) denote the absolute displacement of
the mass relative to its original position of rest and x(t) be the motion of the mass relative to
the moving base, i.e., xm(t) = x(t) + xg(t). The equation of motion for this system can now be
written as,
m


x + c( x
m – x
g) + k(xm – xg) = 0 (7.22)
This equation can be rewritten as,
m


x + c x
+ kx = –m


xg (7.23)
This equation is now completely analogous to the standard equation of the motion of a SDOF
system and can be solved for the relative displacement response by the standard procedures.

7.3.3 Response of SDOF Systems to a Finite Duration

Excitation
Let us now consider the response of a SDOF
system subjected to a rectangular pulse of F(t)
finite duration, T, as shown in Figure 7.6. The k
governing equation of motion for this system m F(t) F0
is given by c
T t (s)
m


x + c x
+ kx =
RSF ; 0 £ t £ T
0
(7.24) FIGURE 7.6 SDOF system excited by a
T0; t > T finite duration rectangular pulse.
 +D=FJAH % Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 123

The above equation resembles the equation of motion for forced vibration for 0 £ t £ T and
describes the free vibrations of SDOF oscillator for t > T. Accordingly, the response of the
SDOF system can be considered in two phases:
(i) response during 0 £ t £ T, the forced-vibration era, which comprises a homogeneous
solution and a particular solution:
x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t); 0 £ t £ T
F0
= e–zw n t [A1 cos wd t + A2 sin wd t] +
k
LMF x F0 I x
+ zw n ( x 0 - F0 /k ) OPF
= e–zw n t - cos w d t + 0 sin w d t + 0
NH 0
k K wd Q k

where x0 and x
0 are the initial displacement and initial velocity of the oscillator mass at t = 0,
and
(ii) free vibration response subsequent to the removal of the applied external force:
x(t – T) = e–zw n(t–T) [A1 cos wd (t – T) + A2 sin wd (t – T)]; t > T
LM x
T + zw n x T OP
= e–zw n(t–T) x T cos w d (t - T ) + sin w d (t - T )
N wd Q
where, xT and x
T denote the displacement and velocity at the end of forced vibration era, at
t = T.
The effect of the duration of application of excitation pulse on the response of a SDOF
oscillator is shown in Figure 7.7, wherein the dynamic response has been normalized by the
static response F0 /k. Four pulses of duration T = [0.25Tn, 0.5Tn, 2Tn, 4Tn] (where Tn = natural
period of the oscillator—assumed to be 0.1 s for numerical study) have been considered. It is
worthwhile studying these plots in some detail. The following points emerge (with respect to
the finite duration rectangular pulse):
(i) The response of oscillator to a pulse of very short duration (with respect to the natural
period) closely resembles the free vibration response of oscillator due to non-zero
initial velocity.
(ii) The time of occurrence of the maximum oscillator response—for the pulse width
T £ 0.5Tn, the maximum response occurs in the free-vibration phase after the excitation
has ceased to act on the oscillator. It is, therefore, prudent while studying the dynamic
response of a structural system to finite duration excitations to compute the response
beyond the duration of excitation for a few cycles. This is particularly important for
lightly damped systems.
(iii) When the pulse duration is relatively large (T > 0.5Tn), the response during the forced-
vibration era oscillates about the static response (unit normalized response), and the
free vibration response oscillates about the zero-level. This shift of mean position
occurs instantaneously after the excitation ceases to exist.
These observations can be used to derive analytical procedures for computing dynamic response
of oscillators for arbitrary loadings as discussed in the following.
 124 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

2.0 2.0
T/Tn = 0.25 T/Tn = 0.50
1.5 1.5
Normalized displacement

Normalized displacement
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
–0.5 –0.5
–1.0 –1.0
–1.5 –1.5
–2.0 –2.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
2.0 2.0
T/Tn = 2.00 T/Tn = 4.00
1.5 1.5
Normalized displacement

Normalized displacement
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
–0.5 –0.5
–1.0 –1.0
–1.5 –1.5
–2.0 –2.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 7.7 Effect of finite duration of excitation on response of SDOF system (Tn = 0.1 s, and
z = 0.05).

7.3.4 Response of SDOF Systems to a Short Duration

Impulse
Let us consider a SDOF system, initially at rest, that is excited by an impulse of magnitude I.
Since the impulse acts on the system for a very small time, it can only effect an instantaneous
change in the momentum of the mass without altering its position. Therefore the mass, initially
at rest, experiences a change in velocity but the instantaneous displacement remains zero. The
velocity imparted to the mass by the impulse I is given by x
0 = I/m from the conservation of
momentum principle. Thus the mass will start free-vibration after the removal of impulse with
initial velocity as x
0 = I/m and initial displacement x0 = 0. When the applied impulse is of unit
magnitude, the resulting free vibration solution is known as the unit impulse response function
and is given by,

e -zw n t sin w d t
1
h(t) = (7.25)
mw d
The response due to an impulse is closely approximated by response to short duration pulse as
seen in the first plot of Figure 7.7 for T = 0.25Tn. This useful approximation can be clubbed
with the principle of superposition to develop a versatile analytical procedure.
 +D=FJAH % Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 125

7.3.5 Response of SDOF Systems to General

Dynamic Excitation
A general method for evaluating the response of SDOF systems to an arbitrary form of the
excitation can be derived on the basis of unit impulse response function developed earlier.
The method is based on the principle of superposition and hence is strictly valid for linear
systems only. Let us consider a SDOF system subjected to some arbitrary forcing function F(t).
This arbitrary excitation can be considered to be a
sequence of pulses of infinitesimal duration dt and F(t)
magnitude equal to the amplitude of the forcing
function F(t = t) as shown in Figure 7.8. The
response of the system to an impulse dI = F(t)dt is
denoted by dx(t) and is given by, F(t)

dx(t) =
FG dI IJ e
–zw n (t–t)
sin wd (t – t) (7.26)
H mw K
d t dt
Time

The total response at time t will be the sum of the FIGURE 7.8 Arbitrary forcing function
response due to all incremental impulses occurring as a series of impulses.
prior to time t. Therefore,

x(t) =
1
mw d z0
t
F(t ) e–zw n(t–t) sin wd (t – t)dt (7.27)

This integral is known as Duhamel integral and can be used to compute the response of SDOF
system to any arbitrary excitation. This equation can also be written as

x(t) = z0
t
F(t ) h (t - t ) dt (7.28)

and in this form it is commonly referred to as the convolution integral. It may be noted that the
effect of non-zero initial conditions has not been considered in the response. The free-vibration
response due to non-zero initial conditions should be superposed with the forced vibration
response computed by using Duhamel integral to get the complete response. Since the forcing
functions are usually available as tabulated values for different time instants, the Equation
(7.27) needs to be evaluated numerically by replacing the continuous integral by a finite
summation with a uniform pulse width (step size) Dt approximating the infinitesimal dt. As the
above formulation is based on the superposition of impulse response functions, it is necessary
to ensure that the pulse duration Dt used in actual evaluation of the response is indeed small
enough to closely resemble this assumed behaviour. Moreover, Dt should also be small enough
to assume the force amplitude to be constant within the interval. The effect of magnitude of
Dt on the computed response is shown in Figure 7.9. These plots represent the response of a
SDOF oscillator excited by a rectangular pulse of width T = 4Tn computed analytically, and
numerically by using Duhamel integral (convolution integral) for different values of Dt. It can
be seen that for a large Dt the numerically computed response is a poor approximation for the
analytical solution, especially in the free vibration era. Further, for any finite choice of Dt, the
numerically evaluated response always lags behind the true (analytical) response and the amount
 126 Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

2.0
Analytical
1.5 Duhamel (Dt = 0.05Tn)
Duhamel (Dt = 0.10Tn)
Normalized displacement 1.0 Duhamel (Dt = 0.20Tn)
Duhamel (Dt = 0.50Tn)
0.5
0.0
–0.5
–1.0
–1.5
–2.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s)
FIGURE 7.9 Effect of step size on numerical evaluation of Duhamel integral.

of lag is proportional to the choice of Dt. It can, therefore, be concluded that Dt £ 0.1Tn for
reasonable accuracy in the computed response.
The formulation for numerical evaluation of Duhamel integral is discussed in a later
chapter on the numerical evaluation of dynamic response.
F(t) = F0 sin wt

7.4 VIBRATION ISOLATION x(t)

Several industrial units have machines with reciprocating m

parts installed at various places in the structure. These
machine installations should be carefully planned and proper k c
mountings should be designed lest these machine vibrations
should transfer to other parts of the structure and interfere
with the daily operations. Let us consider the schematic
.
representation of a SDOF system shown in Figure 7.10, R(t) = kx(t) + cx(t)
where the mass now represents the vibrating machine, the FIGURE 7.10 Transmission of
force F(t) = F0 sin wt represents the harmonic force generated vibrations from reciprocating
during its operation, and spring and dashpot denote the machines.
properties of the mounting system to be designed such that
the force transmitted to the base (reaction) is kept under some specified limit.
The concepts developed in the study of response of SDOF system to harmonic excitations
are used for designing the vibration isolators. Since the machines typically operate for long
durations at a certain frequency, the starting transients can be neglected. The displacement, x(t),
of machine can be given by Equations 7.17 to 7.21. The total force transmitted to the support
is given by (assuming that the supporting system is rigid enough not to deform significantly due
to these transmitted forces):
R(t) = kx(t) + c x
(t)
= kX sin(wt – f) + cwX cos(wt – f) (7.29)