Chapter One : Introduction

Lecturer .Eng. Moktar Ebei

 Contents

1. Concrete-producing materials

2. Mechanical properties of concrete

3. Steel reinforcement

2
 Part 1:
Concrete-Producing
Materials

3
Advantages of reinforced concrete
as a structural material
1. It has considerable compressive strength.

2. It has great resistance to the actions of fire and water.

3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.

4. It is a low maintenance material.

5. It has very long service life.

4
Advantages of reinforced concrete
as a structural material
6. It is usually the only economical material for footings,
basement walls, etc.

7. It can be cast into many shapes.

8. It can be made from inexpensive local materials.

9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erecting.

5
Disadvantages of reinforced
concrete as a structural material
1. It has a very low tensile strength.
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it
hardens.
3. Concrete members are very large and heavy because of the
low strength per unit weight of concrete.
4. Properties of concrete vary due to variations in
proportioning and mixing.

6
Compatibility of concrete and steel
1. Concrete is strong in compression, and steel is strong in
tension.
2. The two materials bond very well together.
3. Concrete protects the steel from corrosive environments
and high temperatures in fire.
4. The coefficients of thermal expansion for the two
materials are quite close.

7
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates, and water. This mixture creates a formable
paste that hardens into a rocklike mass.

8
Concrete Producing Materials

• Portland Cement
• Aggregates
• Water
• Admixtures

9
Portland Cement
The most common type of hydraulic cement used in the
manufacture of concrete is known as Portland cement, which is
available in various types.

Although there are several types of ordinary Portland cements,

most concrete for buildings is made from Type I ordinary
cement.

Concrete made with normal Portland cement require about two

weeks to achieve a sufficient strength to permit the removal of
forms and the application of moderate loads.

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Types of Cement
 Type I: General Purpose

 Type II: Lower heat of hydration than

Type I

 Type III: High Early Strength

• Quicker strength
• Higher heat of hydration

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Types of Cement
 Type IV: Low Heat of Hydration
• Slowly dissipates heat  less distortion (used for
large structures).

 Type V: Sulfate Resisting

• For footings, basements, sewers, etc. exposed to
soils with sulfates.

If the desired type of cement is not available, different

admixtures may be used to modify the properties of Type 1
cement and produce the desired effect.
12
Aggregates
Aggregates are particles that form about three-fourths of the
volume of finished concrete. According to their particle size,
aggregates are classified as fine or coarse.

Coarse Aggregates
Coarse aggregates consist of gravel or crushed rock particles
not less than 5 mm in size.

Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregates consist of sand or pulverized rock particles
usually less than 5 mm in size.
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Water
Mixing water should be clean and free of organic materials that
react with the cement or the reinforcing bars.

The quantity of water relative to that of the cement, called

water-cement ratio, is the most important item in determining
concrete strength.

An increase in this ratio leads to a reduction in the compressive

strength of concrete.

It is important that concrete has adequate workability to assure

its consolidation in the forms without excessive voids.

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Admixtures

– Applications:
• Improve workability (superplasticizers)
• Accelerate or retard setting and hardening
• Aid in curing
• Improve durability

15
Concrete Mixing
In the design of concrete mixes, three principal
requirements for concrete are of importance:

• Quality
• Workability
• Economy

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 Part 2:
Mechanical Properties of
Concrete

17
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
'
f
Compressive Strength, c

• Normally, 28-day strength is used as the design

strength.

18
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
'
f
Compressive Strength, c

• It is determined through testing standard cylinders 15

cm in diameter and 30 cm in height in uniaxial
compression at 28 days (ASTM C470).

• Test cubes 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm are also tested in

uniaxial compression at 28 days (BS 1881).

19
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
'
f
Compressive Strength, c

• The ACI Code is based on the concrete compressive

strength as measured by a standard test cylinder.

f c Cylinder  0.8f c Cube

• For ordinary applications, concrete compressive

strengths from 20 MPa to 30 MPa are usually used.

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Mechanical Concrete Properties
Compressive-Strength Test

21
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, Ec
• Corresponds to the secant modulus at 0.45 c
'
f
• For normal-weight concrete:
Ec  4700 f c ACI 8.5.1

22 0.002 0.003
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
Tensile Strength
– Tensile strength ~ 8% to 15% of f c'

– Tensile strength of concrete is quite difficult to measure

with direct axial tension loads because of problems of
gripping the specimen and due to the secondary stresses
developing at the ends of the specimens.

– Instead, two indirect tests are used to measure the tensile

strength of concrete. These are given in the next two slides.

23
 Mechanical Concrete Properties
Tensile Strength
– Modulus of Rupture, fr

f r  0.62 f c ACI Eq. 9-10

– Modulus of Rupture Test (or flexural test):

P
unreinforced
concrete beam

fr
Mc 6M
fr   2
24 I bh
Mechanical Concrete Properties
Tensile Strength
– Splitting Tensile Strength, fct

f ct  0.56 f c ACI R8.6.1

– Split Cylinder Test

Concrete Cylinder P

Poisson’s
Effect

2P
f ct 
 Ld
25
Creep
• Creep is defined as the long-term deformation caused
by the application of loads for long periods of time,
usually years.

• Creep strain occurs due to sustaining the same load

over time.

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Creep
The total deformation is divided into two parts; the first
is called elastic deformation occurring right after the
application of loads, and the second which is time
dependent, is called creep

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Shrinkage
Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the reduction in
volume of concrete due to loss of moisture. As a
result, shrinkage cracks develop.
Shrinkage continues for many years, but under ordinary
conditions about 90% of it occurs during the first
year.

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 Part 3:
Steel Reinforcement

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Steel Reinforcement
Tensile tests

30
Steel Reinforcement
Tensile tests

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Steel Reinforcement
Stress-strain diagrams
fs = ε Es ≤ fy

Yield point

elastic plastic

All steel grades have same modulus of elasticity Es= 2x105 MPa
= 200 GPa 32
Steel Reinforcement
Bar sizes, f, #
Bars are available in nominal diameters ranging from 5mm
to 50mm, and may be plain or deformed. When bars have
smooth surfaces, they are called plain, and when they have
projections on their surfaces, they are called deformed.

Steel grades, fy
ksi MPa
40 276
60 414
80 552
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Steel Reinforcement
Bars are deformed to increase bonding with concrete

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Steel Reinforcement
Marks for ASTM Standard bars

35
Steel Reinforcement
Bar sizes according to ASTM Standards
U.S. customary units

36
Steel Reinforcement
Bar sizes according to ASTM Standards
SI Units

37
Steel Reinforcement
Bar sizes according to European Standard (EN 10080)
W Number of bars
mm N/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 2.2 28 57 85 113 141 170 198 226 254 283
8 3.9 50 101 151 201 251 302 352 402 452 503
10 6.2 79 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 8.9 113 226 339 452 565 679 792 905 1018 1131
14 12.1 154 308 462 616 770 924 1078 1232 1385 1539
16 15.8 201 402 603 804 1005 1206 1407 1608 1810 2011 Areas
18 19.9 254 509 763 1018 1272 1527 1781 2036 2290 2545
20 24.7 314 628 942 1257 1571 1885 2199 2513 2827 3142
are in
22 29.8 380 760 1140 1521 1901 2281 2661 3041 3421 3801 mm2
24 35.5 452 905 1357 1810 2262 2714 3167 3619 4072 4524
25 38.5 491 982 1473 1963 2454 2945 3436 3927 4418 4909
26 41.7 531 1062 1593 2124 2655 3186 3717 4247 4778 5309
28 45.4 616 1232 1847 2463 3079 3695 4310 4926 5542 6158
30 55.4 707 1414 2121 2827 3534 4241 4948 5655 6362 7069
32 63.1 804 1608 2413 3217 4021 4825 5630 6434 7238 8042 38
 Load paths
Structural systems transfer gravity loads from the floors
and roof to the ground through load paths that need to
be clearly identified in the design process.

Identifying the correct path is important for determining

the load carried by each structural member.

The tributary area concept is used to determine the load

that each structural component is subjected to.
2
 Metal Deck/Slab System
Supports Floor Loads Above

Girders Support Joists

Joists Support Floor Deck

Columns Support Girders

 The area tributary to a
joist equals the length of
the joist times the sum of
half the distance to each
adjacent joist.
 The area tributary to a girder
equals the length of the
girder times the sum of half
the distance to each adjacent
girder.
 Load paths  loads on structural members

Load is distributed over the area of the floor. This distributed load
has units of (force/area), e.g. kN/m2.
w {kN/m}
q {kN/m2} Loads
P {kN}
Beam Beam Column

Slab Beam

Column Beam Beam

Footing
Slab

Beam Beam
Soil

6
 Load paths  loads on (one-way) beams

In order to design a beam, the tributary load from the floor carried
by the beam and distributed over its span is determined. This load
has units of (force/distance), e.g. kN/m.

Notes:
-In some cases, there may be concentrated loads carried by the beams as well.
-All spans of the beam must be considered together (as a continuous beam) for design.

w {kN/m}

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 Load paths  loads on (one-way) beams
This tributary load is determined by multiplying q by the tributary
width for the beam.

w {kN/m} = q {kN/m2}  (S1+S2)/2 {m}

8 S1 S2
 Load paths  loads on (two-way) beams
The tributary areas for a beam in a two way system are areas which
are bounded by 45-degree lines drawn from the corners of the
panels and the centerlines of the adjacent panels parallel to the long
sides.
A panel is part of the slab formed by column centerlines.

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 Load paths  loads on (two-way) beams
An edge beam is bounded
by panels from one side.

An interior beam is
bounded by panels from
two sides.

qD

For edge beams:

D=S/2
qD
For interior beams:
D=S
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 Load paths  loads on columns
The tributary load for the column is concentrated. It has units of
(force) e.g., kN. It is determined by multiplying q by the tributary
area for the column.

P {kN} = q {kN/m2}  (x y){m2}

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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
Determine the loads acting on beams B1 and B2 and columns C1
and C2. Distributed load over the slab is q = 10 kN/m2. This is a 5
story structure.
B1
4m
B2
5m

4.5 m C2
C1

6m 5.5 m
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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
B1:
w = 10  (4)/2 = 20 kN/m

B1
4m
B2
5m

4.5 m C2
C1

6m 5.5 m
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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
B2:
w = 10  (4+5)/2 = 45 kN/m

B1
4m
B2
5m

4.5 m C2
C1

6m 5.5 m
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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
B1:
w = 20 kN/m

B2:
w = 45 kN/m

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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
C1:
P = 10 (4.5/2 6/2)  5 = 337.5 kN
B1
4m
B2
5m

4.5 m C2
C1

6m 5.5 m
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 Load paths  loads on structural members
Example
C2:
P = 10 [(4.5+5)/2 (6+5.5)/2]  5 = 1366 kN
B1
4m
B2
5m

4.5 m C2
C1

6m 5.5 m
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 Load types

Classification by direction

1- Gravity loads

2- Lateral loads

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 Load types

Classification by source and activity

1- Dead loads

2- Live loads

3- Environmental loads
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 Loads on Structures
All structural elements must be designed for all loads anticipated to
act during the life span of such elements. These loads should not
cause the structural elements to fail or deflect excessively under
working conditions.

Dead load (D.L)

• Weight of all permanent construction
• Constant magnitude and fixed location
Examples: * Weight of the Structure
(Walls, Floors, Roofs, Ceilings, Stairways, Partitions)
* Fixed Service Equipment

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 Minimum live Load values on slabs

Live Loads (L.L) Type of Use Uniform Live Load

kN/m2
Residential 2
The live load is a moving or Residential balconies 3
movable type of load such Computer use 5
Offices 2
as occupants, furniture, etc. Warehouses
Live loads used in designing  Light storage 6
buildings are usually  Heavy Storage 12
Schools
specified by local building
 Classrooms 2
codes. Live loads depend on Libraries
the intended use of the  Rooms 3
structure and the number of  Stack rooms 6
occupants at a particular Hospitals 2
Assembly Halls
time.  Fixed seating 2.5
 Movable seating 5
See IBC 2009 TABLE Garages (cars) 2.5
1607.1 for more live loads. Stores
[Link]  Retail 4

com/icod/ibc/2009/[Link]  Wholesale 5
Exit facilities 5
m?bu=IC-P-2009- Manufacturing
000001&bu2=IC-P-2009-  Light 4
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000019  Heavy 6
 Environmental loads
Wind load (W.L)
The wind load is a lateral load produced by wind pressure and
gusts. It is a type of dynamic load that is considered static to
simplify analysis. The magnitude of this force depends on the
shape of the building, its height, the velocity of the wind and the
type of terrain in which the building exists.
Earthquake load (E.L) or seismic load
The earthquake load is a lateral load caused by ground motions
resulting from earthquakes. The magnitude of such a load depends
on the mass of the structure and the acceleration caused by the
earthquake.

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Design Versus Analysis
Design involves the determination of the type of structural system to
be used, the cross sectional dimensions, and the required
reinforcement. The designed structure should be able to resist all
forces expected to act during the life span of the structure safely and
without excessive deformation or cracking.

Analysis involves the determination of the capacity of a section of

known dimensions, material properties and steel reinforcement, if
any to external forces and moments.

2
Structural Design Requirements:
The design of a structure must satisfy three basic requirements:
1)Strength to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in the
various structural members.
2)Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service
load conditions, which implies providing adequate stiffness to
contain deflections, crack widths and vibrations within acceptable
limits.
3)Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the
structure, or part of it under the action of loads.
There are two other considerations that a sensible designer should
keep in mind: Economy and aesthetics.
3
Building Codes, Standards, and Specifications:

Standards and Specifications: Detailed statement of

procedures for design (i.e., AISC Structural Steel Spec;
ACI 318 Standards, ANSI/ASCE7-05). Not legally
binding. Think of as Recommended Practice.

Code: Systematically arranged and comprehensive

collection of laws and regulations

4
Building Codes, Standards, and Specifications:
Model Codes: Consensus documents that can be adopted
by government agencies as legal documents.

3 Model Codes in the U.S.

1. Uniform Building Code (UBC): published by International
Conference of Building Officials (ICBO).

2. BOCA National Building Code (NBC): published by Building

Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA).

3. Standard Building Code (SBC): published by Southern Building

Code Congress International (SBCCI).

5
Building Codes, Standards, and Specifications:

Summary:

The standards that will be used extensively throughout

this course is Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete and commentary, known as the ACI 318M-08 code.

The building code that will be used for this course is

the IBC 2009, in conjunction with the ANSI/ASCE7-02.

8
Design Methods (Philosophies)
Two methods of design have long prevalent.
Working Stress Method focuses on conditions at service
loads.
Strength Design Method focusing on conditions at loads
greater than the service loads when failure may be imminent.
The Strength Design Method is deemed conceptually more realistic
to establish structural safety.
The Working-Stress Design Method
This method is based on the condition that the stresses caused by
service loads without load factors are not to exceed the allowable
stresses which are taken as a fraction of the ultimate stresses of the
materials, fc’ for concrete and fy for steel. 9
The Ultimate – Strength Design Method
At the present time, the ultimate-strength design method is the
method adopted by most prestigious design codes.
In this method, elements are designed so that the internal forces
produced by factored loads do not exceed the corresponding
reduced strength capacities.

reduced strength provided  factored loads 

The factored loads are obtained by multiplying the working loads

(service loads) by factors usually greater than unity.
10
Safety Provisions (the strength requirement)
Safety is required to insure that the structure can sustain all expected
loads during its construction stage and its life span with an
appropriate factor of safety.
There are three main reasons why some sort of safety factor are
necessary in structural design
• Variability in resistance. *Variability of fc’ and fy, *assumptions are made
during design and *differences between the as-built dimensions and those found in
structural drawings.
• Variability in loading. Real loads may differ from assumed design loads,
or distributed differently.
• Consequences of failure. *Potential loss of life, *cost of clearing the
debris and replacement of the structure and its contents and *cost to society.

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Safety Provisions (the strength requirement)
The strength design method, involves a two-way safety measure. The
first of which involves using load factors, usually greater than unity
to increase the service loads. The second safety measure specified by
the ACI Code involves a strength reduction factor multiplied by the
nominal strength to obtain design strength. The magnitude of such a
reduction factor is usually smaller than unity

Design strength ≥ Factored loads

 R    i Li
i
ACI 9.3 ACI 9.2
12
Load factors
ACI 9.2.1
Dead only
U = 1.4D
Dead and Live Loads
U = 1.2D+1.6L
Dead, Live, and Wind Loads
U=1.2D+1.0L+1.6W
Dead and Wind Loads
U=1.2D+0.8W or U=0.9D+1.6W
Dead, Live and Earthquake Loads
U=1.2D+1.0L+1.0E
Dead and Earthquake Loads
U=0.9D+1.0E

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Load factors
ACI 9.2

Symbols

14
Strength Reduction Factors ACI 9.3
According to ACI, strength reduction factors Φ are given as follows:
a- For tension-controlled sections Φ = 0.90
b- For compression-controlled sections,
Members with spiral reinforcement Φ = 0.75
Other reinforced members Φ = 0.65
c- For shear and torsion Φ = 0.75

Tension-controlled section compression-controlled section

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