DEVELOPMENT AND FOOD

AND NUTRITION SECURITY

FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION ON COHERENT POLICIES
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1. BACKGROUND
Food and nutrition security involve permanent access to sufficient, safe, health, and nutritious food at affordable prices,
so that people can meet their basic needs and lead active and healthy lives. Although the right to food is an internation-
ally recognised human right, it is not guaranteed for a large portion of the world’s population, impacting other rights
and compromising prospects for a dignified life, particularly in countries and population groups with greater poverty and
vulnerability.

In recent years, the confluence of several global crises and their impacts on food systems (including the impacts of con-
flicts, climate change, post-pandemic economic shocks, etc. ) is intertwined with characteristics of global supply chains
(marked by inequalities and power imbalances), agricultural and food production practices (mostly unsustainable), and
food consumption (evolution of diets that do not favour sustainable and conscious consumption options) that end up rein-
forcing these global asymmetries and injustices. These trends further compromise food sovereignty, that is, the autono-
my of peoples to control and define their own agricultural and food policies, promoting sustainable practices appropriate to
local contexts, strengthening their resilience, and respecting their diversity.

Thus, although humanity has the resources necessary to eradicate extreme poverty within a generation, including the
eradication of hunger and all forms of malnutrition, evolution in recent years has shown a reverse trend, with the world
experiencing a food crisis and the neglect of the deep and systemic causes of food insecurity. The way food is produced,
supplied, and consumed today raises questions about respect for human rights, justice, and equality.

Food and nutrition insecurity is simultaneously a cause and an effect of poverty. Responding to hunger is a moral, politi-
cal, economic, and social imperative, and building fairer and more sustainable agri-food systems is crucial to this goal, as
well as a necessary condition for achieving the 2030 Agenda in its various dimensions.

Food and nutrition security is multidimensional and requires systemic approaches, addressing the various dimensions of
food systems, including interconnections with factors and impacts at the environmental, social and human level. In this
sense, actively promoting Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) is essential. On the one hand, it ensures that the im-
pacts of policies related to agri-food systems (agricultural, trade, investment, etc.) on poorer countries are duly taken into
account, reformulating them to mitigate any potential harmful effects. On the other hand, it allows for the enhancement
of synergies between stakeholders and between policies and measures, towards the construction of global and national
agri-food systems that prioritise accessibility, adequacy, and sustainability, in accordance with international human rights
standards, with mutual benefits for humanity and the planet.
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“This is more than a failure of systems - it is a failure

of humanity. Hunger in the 21st century is indefensible.(…)
We must summon the funding, innovations and global
solidarity to build the food-secure and climate-resilient
future that every person, everywhere, needs and deserves.”
”
António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations, May 2025.

Unsplash_East Timor 2023

VIDEO VIDEO VIDEO

What are agri-food Learn about the situation of Food Inequalities
systems? and Agriculture in the world in agri-food systems
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2. FROM PERCEPTIONS TO FACTS

We know that hunger is a persistent reality in the world, but are we aware of the concrete numbers of food
insecurity in its multiple aspects? And what data and evidence are available on global inequalities in these
areas? Agri-food systems are interconnected with all dimensions of global development – social, economic
and environmental -, so it is important to have a substantiated, informed and conscious perspective on the
facts and data that incorporate trends in this area, which can serve as a basis for defining and implement-
ing coherent policies.

Hunger and food insecurity numbers continue

to worsen: who is being left behind?
The global hunger and food insecurity situation in the world is worrying: approximately 733 million people worldwide will
face hunger in 2025, which is 1 in 11 people (in Africa, 1 in 5 people). More than 258 million people, in 58 countries, are
experiencing acute/very severe food insecurity (compared to 135 million people at the beginning of 2020), while food and
humanitarian aid has been declining, creating a significant gap between needs and response capabilities.

Most global indicators are worse today than they were pre-pandemic: between 2019 and 2022, the prevalence of malnu-
trition increased from 7.9% to 9.2%, and the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity rose from 25.3% to 29.6%
– these percentages are even higher in rural areas, and in the world’s poorest regions, with Sub-Saharan Africa (in propor-
tion of the total population) and Central and South Asia (in number of people) being the most affected regions.

Around 9 million people die annually from causes related to hunger and malnutrition, a large proportion of them children
under the age of 5, as food insecurity is a major cause of child mortality.

Almost 1/3 of the people in the world cannot access a health and nutritious diet because they do not have the financial
resources to do so (2.8 billion people), with this proportion being much higher in low-income countries (where 72% of the
population cannot afford this food) than in high-income countries (where 6% of the population cannot afford these costs).
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The main global factors contributing to the worsening of these trends are violent conflicts (as more than 65% of people
affected by severe food insecurity live in fragile and conflict-affected countries), climate change (which could reduce crop
yields and diversity by 30% by 2030) and economic shocks (affecting food availability, inflation and prices). Several of the
most fragile countries have suffered from these factors simultaneously in recent years.

Not a single country has achieved its SDG 2 targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and most are moving
away from achieving it. If current trends continue, approximately 582 million people will continue to face hunger in 2030,
half of them in Africa.

Inequalities in agri-food systems

The inequalities in global food systems and the unequal distribution of food and resources are profound: the world currently
produces enough food to feed more than the world’s population, but more than a billion meals are wasted every day, and up
to 40% of total food is lost or wasted along value chains.

Small farmers produce about one-third of the world’s food for human consumption, but the prevalence of poverty remains
much higher in rural areas than in urban areas. At the same time, lower-income countries tend to have higher percentages
of their population employed in the agricultural sector – for example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, on average, 52% of people
have livelihoods dependent on the agricultural sector (in the European Union, this figure is only 4% of the population), yet
they remain in poverty. At the same time, African countries are food importers and highly dependent on global markets,
with at least 82% of basic food imports coming from outside the continent, which exacerbates inequalities.

Harmful impacts on people and the planet

The way agri-food systems are organised means they are currently responsible for the unsustainable exploitation of highly
polluting natural resources, the main cause of deforestation and biodiversity loss. About one-third of arable land is degraded,
and half of fish stocks are virtually depleted. The agri-food sector currently generates about 30% of global greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, and could generate up to 50% by 2050 if not transformed. Every year, more than 25 million people suffer
from acute pesticide poisoning due to intensive and industrial agriculture.
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Most agricultural land is used for livestock grazing and animal feed production, not for direct human consumption. Many
food products, especially meat and dairy, have a huge ecological footprint due to the unsustainable use of raw materials
and water. A plant-based diet would allow us to use 75% less agricultural land globally.

The unsustainable exploitation of the planet’s resources is combined with the continued increase in demand for food, goods,
and services linked to or derived from agriculture (including crops, livestock, forests, fisheries, etc.). If there is no change
in agricultural and food systems, taking into account increased food consumption, total global food demand is expected to
increase by 35% to 56% between 2010 and 2050 – which will exacerbate existing asymmetries.

On the contrary, a global agri-food system aligned with the SDGs could generate economic value between $5 to 10 trillion
per year, create more than 200 million full-time jobs by 2050, increase resilience to climate risk and help restore ecosys-
tems, generate more crop income and ensure nutritious and affordable food for all.

Figure: Harmful impacts of agri-food systems

Source: The Great Food Puzzle Report, WWF, 2024.

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Gender inequalities

Global inequalities in agri-food systems are also gender inequalities: women represent 60% of people experiencing chronic
food insecurity, generating a vicious cycle of poverty and social injustice.

At the same time, in the agricultural sector, women are overrepresented in seasonal, informal, part-time and low-wage
work, receiving less social protection. Women have much less access to, control over, and ownership of land and other
productive assets than men: for example, less than 15% of agricultural landowners worldwide are women, although this
percentage varies greatly from country to country. In the most fragile countries, persistent discrimination in policies and
practices, weak legal enforcement, social norms, and other obstacles contribute to the perpetuation of inequality, particu-
larly in rural areas.

Fostering policies that promote gender equality is crucial for social and climate justice and for achieving more equitable
and sustainable agri-food systems. Eliminating gender disparities in farm productivity and the employment pay gap in the
agri-food system could increase global GDP by 1% - or almost $1 trillion USD – contributing to eliminating hunger for 150
million people and reducing food insecurity by around 17% worldwide.

QUIZ INTERACTIVE MAPS: INTERACTIVE MAPS:

What do you know about food crises in the world food insecurity
food loss and waste?
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3. COHERENT INTERCONNECTIONS
Food and nutrition (in)security is interconnected with multiple factors and impacts at environmental, so-
cial, economic, and human rights level, which positively or negatively affect people’s aspirations for a dig-
nified life, the progress of societies, and development prospects everywhere in the world. The shift towards
fair and equitable agri-food systems contributes to reducing poverty, promoting quality health and educa-
tion, and increasing social cohesion – and, conversely, progress in these areas is also crucial for achieving
greater food sovereignty and promoting the right to food for all.

Poverty and inequalities

Poverty and food insecurity are intertwined, as people or social groups with lower income, greater economic
marginalisation, vulnerability and risk of social exclusion are more affected by hunger and malnutrition, while
the lack of access to adequate basic foods can keep people trapped in a cycle of poverty and deprivation.

In the countries most affected by food insecurity, it is much more difficult to reduce poverty and promote
sustainable development processes, as hunger, undernutrition and malnutrition have a significant impact on
health, learning and human development, productivity, and economies. Rising global food prices, both an ag-
gravating factor and a symptom of the ongoing food crisis, represent a heavier burden for the poorest coun-
tries, where food costs constitute a larger share of household and government budgets, and where there are
fewer internal capacities and financial resources to meet these increases.

A healthy population is a basic condition for economic and social development, and this depends on the im-
plementation of the Right to Food, which in turn implies policies that promote the reduction of poverty and
inequalities. The phenomenon of hunger is underpinned by several inequalities (geographical, income, gender,
etc.) that are rooted in structural discrimination and imbalances of economic, social and political power. For
example, promoting women’s human rights by reducing inequalities in access to assets (community, family and
individual) and means of production (such as land ownership) is a fundamental factor in improving the right to
food worldwide.
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Environment and climate change

Promoting sustainable food security is essential to protecting natural resources and the environment. Indeed,
when agri-food production models are managed sustainably, they can contribute to preserving and restoring es-
sential habitats, helping to protect watersheds, and improving soil and water quality, representing a fundamental
component of sustainable development.

However, in recent decades, we have witnessed a degradation of natural resources and biodiversity, with clear
repercussions on food and nutrition security. Furthermore, food insecurity has increased in areas affected by
catastrophes, natural disasters and extreme events (floods, storms, prolonged droughts, pests, and diseases),
exacerbated by climate change, which have an increasingly greater impact on agricultural practices and on de-
velopment.

Efforts to reduce emissions in the agri-food sector must include changes in agricultural production patterns
and processes before and after production, that is, throughout the supply chain. They must also include issues
as varied and complex as the need to adapt to healthier and more balanced diets, reduce food waste throughout
the value chain, forest management, the application and sharing of new technologies, and the need to increase
adaptation and resilience to climate risk.

Human Rights
The Human Right to Adequate Food and Nutrition (HRAFN) is internationally recognised as a fundamental right,
ensuring that everyone can live with dignity, health, and freedom – which are also pillars of human rights. Food
insecurity is a violation of human rights and States have a legal and moral obligation to respect, protect, and fulfil
this right.

Several other rights (to life, health, education, work, etc.) depend on this right, which is essential for the pursuit
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, as adequate food contributes to reducing poverty, reducing
inequalities, promoting quality health and education, and gender equality. Conversely, progress in these areas is
also crucial for achieving greater food sovereignty and promoting the HRAFN.
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The organisation of supply chains for various agri-food goods leads to situations that can be classified as vio-
lations of the right to adequate food and other human rights. Production and processing often involve meagre
wages, inadequate safety conditions, and unfulfilled labour rights. Moreover, human rights violations (such
as child labour, forced labour, and conditions equivalent to slavery) often go unpunished or unidentified. Food
security policies must be implemented with a human rights-based approach.

Agriculture, natural resources and sustainable production

Sustainable agricultural practices promote the conservation of natural resources and the resilience of food
systems, while unsustainable practices compromise the ability to produce safe and nutritious food, even if it
may seem otherwise in the short term. The promotion of intensive and industrial agriculture has contributed
to the destruction of ecosystems (including deforestation) and natural resources (soil, water), the widespread
or abusive use of fertilisers, pesticides, and chemicals, the loss of genetic diversity in seeds and plants, imbal-
ances and unsustainability in supply chains (e.g. long-distance exports and the concentration of distribution),
among other effects.

This is because the focus has been on the expansion, intensification, and growth of agri-food production and
its efficiency – justified by the need to feed a growing global population – without considering other possible
paths with less environmental and human impacts. The global agri-food system is, in fact, a mirror and product
of the path of economic development pursued, based on unlimited economic growth and mass production and
consumption, dependent on the extraction, processing, and use of an ever-increasing quantity of the planet’s
natural resources.

According to the FAO/United Nations, the shift towards more sustainable agriculture at all levels requires that
agri-food systems evolve to promote increased productivity, employment and added value in these systems,
implementing more efficient practices; contribute to the conservation, protection and valorisation of natural
resources; protect and improve rural livelihoods, equity and social well-being; increase the resilience of people,
communities and ecosystems; and be based on responsible, fair, and effective governance mechanisms that
adapt to new challenges. These transformations are possible, but they require coherent and active policies so
that the main objective of the evolution of agricultural practices becomes improving food and nutrition security.
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Conflicts, political instability and social tension
Violent conflicts are a major factor in worsening food insecurity and food crises worldwide, directly causing
humanitarian crises and forced displacement, loss of livelihoods and natural resources, disruption in trade and
food supply chains. In turn, persistent food insecurity can also contribute to social tensions, political instability
and conflicts. It is estimated that a 25% increase in food insecurity contributes to a 36% increase in the risk of
conflict.

With the increase in conflict and the existence of more prolonged humanitarian crises and state fragility, food
crises tend to become more complex, protracted, and difficult to reverse. Furthermore, wars are contributing
to a geoeconomic reconfiguration of global food markets in the medium term.

Hunger and food deprivation have been used as weapons of war for many years, in a wide variety of contexts
and latitudes. The United Nations Security Council recognised violent conflicts as a fundamental cause of food
crises and hunger (Resolution 2417, May 2018), also classifying the deprivation of food to civilians as a war
crime. This aspect also contributed to the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to the United Nations World Food
Programme (WFP), in 2020, recognising the importance of food aid for the pursuit of peace.

Ensuring food security is an important aspect of promoting social cohesion, reducing forced migration, and
mitigating the risks of conflicts related to food scarcity. The existence of a positive and lasting peace allows for
the creation of conditions for the recovery of livelihoods and the implementation of the Right to Food.

Trade and investiment

Implementing trade and investment policies that address inequalities in agri-food value chains, respect social
and labour rights, and provide incentives (tax, financial, and regulatory) for more sustainable practices is es-
sential to addressing the imbalances and injustices that characterise agri-food systems today.

In recent years, the crisis factors that had been triggered or aggravated by the pandemic were further rein-
forced: rising international prices for basic food products and agricultural production factors, disruptions in
agricultural and food supply chains, rising transportation and energy costs, increased protectionism and trade
barriers (including geopolitical tensions and trade wars), and other shock effects on international markets –
exacerbating global inequalities. Due to the nature of their economies, the poorest and most vulnerable coun-
tries, such as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), mostly located in Sub-Saharan Africa, are highly exposed
and vulnerable to shocks in international markets. This was evident with the impacts of the war in Ukraine,
especially on the grain trade, with impacts on food security. Action is needed to defend a freer and fairer trade
system, based on rules that do not further penalise those already being left behind.
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Health and Education

There is a strong link between food security and various indicators of social and human development. Food se-
curity is a social determinant of health, that is, an external factor that influences the population’s well-being:
countries and communities that lack regular access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food experience a higher
incidence of child and maternal mortality, stunted growth (malnutrition), compromised immune system, and
increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, all of which impact quality of life – and are especially worrying for
the most vulnerable social groups.

Food security, in turn, is essential for people to maintain their health and fully fulfil their potential, including in
education and employment. Adequate nutrition fosters learning and cognitive development and reduces pro-
blems such as school dropout, illiteracy, low educational attainment and social exclusion, which are more pre-
valent in contexts of food insecurity. School and academic success ultimately translates into better jobs, greater
productivity, and a contribution to society.

The connection also works in the opposite direction, as investing in education is one of the most sustainable ways
to promote food security in the long term. Education promotes food and nutritional literacy, motivating people
to make healthier and more informed choices; technical and environmental education in rural and agricultural
communities contributes to sustainable food production, improving local food security; education empowers wo-
men and young people, which impacts the nutrition of families and communities. Thus, food security, health and
education reinforce each other.

ONLINE COURSE LEARN MORE ABOUT THE INTERCONNECTIONS:

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4. MAIN EXISTING
POLICY FRAMEWORKS
Global
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) – Article 25.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) – Article 11 – reinforced by its Optional Protocol,
which made the right to food binding at the international level (entered into force in 2013) and by General Comment No. 12
of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1999).

Rome Declaration on Global Food Security (1996) – defined the concept and established seven commitments that serve as
a basis for achieving sustainable food security for all, as well as an Action Plan to implement these commitments.

Other international treaties: International Convention to Combat Desertification, Convention on Biological Diversity
(1992), under which the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) was signed, with specific targets for
2030 and 2050.

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

“We envision a world (…) where food is sufficient, safe, affordable, and nutritious”.

In this sense, we are determined “to end hunger and achieve food security as a matter of priority and to end all forms of malnutri-
tion”, and to this end “we will devote resources to developing rural areas, sustainable agriculture and fisheries, supporting small-
holder farmers, especially women farmers, herders and fishers in developing countries, particularly least developed countries”.

SDG 2 – End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition

and promote sustainable agriculture.

With coherent links to SDGs 1, 3, 5, 12, 14 and 15.

The Pact for the Future (approved in September 2024 at the United Nations) establishes commitments to end hunger and eliminate
food insecurity everywhere in the world (Action 3) and to support people and countries affected by related humanitarian crises (Action
15), in addition to priorities in supporting the development of the poorest and most vulnerable countries and in achieving the 2030
Agenda in its various dimensions.
14

European Union

Treaty on the Functioning of the EU – Part V (external action of the Union), Article 208 (development cooperation and policy
coherence); Article 214 (humanitarian aid)

European Consensus for Development, non-binding – Especially Items 24, 25, 55 and 56. The EU and its Member States
commit to ”faster, more coordinated, and intersectoral efforts to end hunger, increase the production capacity of diversified
food at local and regional levels, ensure food security, nutrition and strengthen the resilience of the most vulnerable.”

European Green Deal – a package of strategic initiatives to put the EU on track towards an environmental and climate
transition, which includes relevant instruments related to food and nutrition security: the Farm to Fork Strategy, to make
food in Europe healthier and more sustainable, the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, which also gave rise to the EU Forest
Strategy 2030, and the Circular Economy Action Plan. The European Climate Law (2021) and the Nature Restoration Act
(2024) establish binding obligations for Member States, including those related to agri-food systems.

Common Agricultural Policy 2023-2027 (representing more than 30% of the total EU budget), with each Member State
having developed its own national strategic plan. A new CAP is under discussion for the 2028-2034 Multiannual Financial
Framework.

European Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (May 2024) – incorporates respect for human rights and the
environment into the policies and actions of companies in value chains.

segAli_FEC_MaM_Angola_3 (21)_Food Security

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Portugal
National Strategy for Food and Nutrition Security (RCM 132/2021) – interconnects various policy instruments and reaf-
firms Portugal’s international commitments in this area.

Climate Framework Law (2021) – establishes principles to be respected by various interconnected policies and, within the
scope of foreign policy, the defence of international commitments and international cooperation and solidarity with coun-
tries of the Global South.

National Roadmap for Sustainable Development 2030. It aims to ensure global coherence in public policies, promoting a
comprehensive and integrated approach to development and implementing solutions to integrate the SDGs into the actions
of different sectors.

Portuguese Cooperation Strategy 2030 (RCM 121/2022)

It actively promotes Policy Coherence for Development through intergovernmental and intersectoral approaches and the
implementation of RCM 82/2010 on this matter. Its sectoral priorities define interconnected objectives for environmental
protection, sustainable management of natural resources, and the promotion of food and nutrition security in developing
countries that are partners of Portuguese Cooperation, specifically through more environmentally friendly and resilient
agricultural policies, research and practices, as well as support for sustainable food production systems, with special at-
tention to the needs of local communities.

The EU Regulation on Deforestation-Free Products (2023) aims to reduce deforestation associated with products con-
sumed in the EU market; the European Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (May 2024) – incorporates re-
spect for human rights and the environment into the policies and actions of companies in value chains.

SDG WHEEL INTERACTIVE TOOL: VIDEO LEARN ABOUT

Examples of how food progress on SDG 2 What is the Right THE UNITED NATIONS’
security interconnects to Food? appeals for ongoing
with all SDGs humanitarian crises
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5. INCOHERENT TRENDS
AND PRACTICES
In the interconnection between food security and development, recent years have demonstrated worrying
trends in policy coherence, with the persistence of unsustainable models, dynamics, and practices, the ex-
istence of human rights violations in value chain, and even the intensification of phenomena such as land
grabbing, negatively affecting local communities and their food security. Despite legislative and political
advances, the agricultural and trade policies of the European Union, its Member States, and private sector
actors continue to have inconsistent external impacts that are particularly reflected in the poorest and
most vulnerable.

Power asymmetries and concen- The agri-food production models that have prevailed over
recent decades, almost exclusively focused on increas-
tration in the agri-food system ing efficiency and production, favour large agricultural,
industrial and intensive farms. Thus, the largest farms,
Almost half of the world’s population depends on the agri- which belong to the largest 1%, now control over 70% of the
food sector for their livelihoods, but the sector is based on world’s cultivated land. The widespread use of fertilisers,
significant global asymmetries, with a highly unequal dis- pesticides, and chemicals (produced and marketed by the
tribution of food and productive resources, which has been same large companies that operate in food production and
worsening, leaving behind a large number of stakeholders distribution) increasingly threatens crop diversity and eco-
essential to food security and, consequently, to poverty re- systems, as well as human health. The privatisation and
duction. concentration of control over seeds, through the impo-
sition of clauses protecting industrial property rights, and
The trend of power concentration in transnational corpo- genetically modified organisms also pose threats to coun-
rations and business groups (particularly through mergers tries’ food sovereignty. The expansion of large technology
and acquisitions of sector giants) has deepened, controlling and digital companies in this sector (including issues such
agri-food value chains at the regional and global levels. This as data flow – big data) also poses a threat to food and
favours an increasingly small number of actors, with the nutrition security, particularly for the poorest and most
risk of worsening inequalities. Those at the bottom of the vulnerable.
chain (farm workers, small-scale farmers and producers,
and rural communities) face significant difficulties in pro-
tecting their rights and preserving livelihoods that ensure
a dignified life.
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In short, currently, just 4 companies control 65% of the

global agrochemical market; 4 companies control over
Pressure on land
70% of the global grain trade and 4 companies control 50% and human rights violations
of the global seed market.
In a global context where more than half of habitable land
A combination of factors – including financial incentives, is used for agriculture and where various industries and
technological changes, regulatory shifts, etc. – have fa- where various industries and the global agri-food system
voured the concentration of power in the sector, giving are placing increasing pressure on natural resources
companies at the top of this system enormous power to and the demand for agricultural raw materials, access
shape market functioning and the very context of pol- to resources such as land, water, and energy is becom-
icies and regulations to suit their interests. This fosters ing increasingly strategic and important for investment,
dynamics that are adverse to the broader objectives of food financing, trade, and economic growth. Both the increase
systems, including issues such as sustainability, participa- in agricultural crops for animal feed and intensive live-
tion, representation, equity, and choice. stock, and the production of biofuels/agrofuels (to meet
“green” energy and climate targets) have contributed to
These asymmetries ultimately reinforce other inequal- this new pressure on the global food system, as they com-
ities, as people or groups historically “left behind”, who pete for these resources.
are disadvantaged and hold less power – such as wom-
en, ethnic minorities and migrants, indigenous people,
those at risk of social exclusion, and rural communities
themselves – are most affected by inequalities in value
chains. Inequality also manifests itself in the governance
of the system, including policymaking, negotiation, and
decision-making processes. These people and groups are
affected by economic, agricultural, and food policies, but
have little or no voice in a debate dominated by govern-
ments and large corporations.

vika-chartier-iYDi7K7Ks00-unsplash_Kiriwina Island, Papua New Guinea_2020

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The large-scale expansion, appropriation, expropria- Linked to this issue is another dimension of these
tion, acquisition and transfer of land in developing coun- inconsistencies: the increase in persecution, crimes and
tries, due to investment and trade projects, without regard violence against activists who defend rights of local com-
for other essential social and human aspects, has led to munities and/or environmental protection, in a general
violations of human rights and the right to development, context of growing threats to civil society action in many
especially in countries with greater fragility and poorer contexts, and with many of the documented cases of vio-
communities, including the violation of social and labour lence pitting the State, the military and/or companies, on
rights, the destruction of livelihoods and the disruption of the one hand, and rural/local communities, on the other
local food systems, forced evictions, and land grabbing. hand. This is particularly true in countries in Central
There is abundant evidence of the lack of “free, prior and and Latin America, but also in Asia and Africa – as is
informed consent” (a fundamental right of indigenous peo- the case in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, the Philippines,
ples and local communities) and the loss of access to land the Democratic Republic of the Congo, among others.
and resources due to large-scale agreements and con-
tracts with companies in developed countries, based on This does not mean that there are no positive trends in
concessions for agribusiness, mining and oil exploration, responding to these inconsistencies. In the European
in case studies in Africa, Asia and Central and Latin Amer- Union, the recent approval of legislation on these matters,
ica – as in these investigations in Mozambique and Brazil. such as the EU Regulation on Deforestation-Free Products
(EUDR) and the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Di-
In terms of labour, much of the agri-food industry world- rective (CSDDD), is very important for reducing the harm-
wide subjects its workers to low wages, precarious work, ful environmental impacts and the violation of human and
and a lack of social protection, forced and child labour, social rights associated with products imported and mar-
denial of freedom of association rights, discrimination keted in the EU – although its scope is not ambitious, and
against migrant workers and gender inequality. there is pressure to postpone, revise and even eliminate
the CSDDD. There is a growing general awareness of the
All of this is facilitated by the fact that many of these impacts of projects and investment in the agri-food sector;
countries have inadequate administrative frameworks consumers in wealthier countries are more demanding;
and legal guarantees, either too flexible or not enforced civil society has mobilised to report and file complaints
in practice, to ensure the protection of social rights, the about human rights violations; and there is a greater mo-
preservation of natural resources and the environment, or bilisation of peasants, producers and communities in the
the security of land property rights for local communities. Global South to demand alternative options for food sys-
In some cases, pressure from agro-industry and agribusi- tems, based on food security and sovereignty. Raising
ness relies on the complicity of some governments and awareness of these issues and empowering communities
other actors in developing countries, working collabora- are, therefore, fundamental to transformation.
tively to implement projects and investment that involve
drilling, land occupation, deforestation, and other harmful
impacts on the environment and human rights.
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External impacts of EU Through strong incentives for export and excess production
of some products – particularly meat, cereals and dairy
agricultural, trade products – local production and agri-food systems have
been affected in the poorest and most vulnerable countries.
and investment policies For example, there is documented evidence of how the Eu-
ropean dairy industry, whose exports are heavily support-
In the context of trade and foreign investment policies, ed by the EU, through dumping practices has contributed to
transparency and accountability rules for various stake- the destruction of the sector in several West African coun-
holders regarding human rights and social responsibility tries, a region where pastoralism is an important econom-
are still poorly implemented in practice. The recent ap- ic activity and many small-scale producers depend on the
proval of legislation on these areas, such as the EU Reg- production and marketing of these products. Furthermore,
ulation on Deforestation-Free Products and the Corporate the model of importing soybeans to meet the needs of the
Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, is crucial for reduc- European market has had harmful environmental and so-
ing harmful environmental impacts and violations of human cial impacts, particularly in Latin America.
and social rights associated with operations, value chains,
and trade relations with third countries. However, there is Current negotiations on the EU’s next Multiannual Finan-
significant pressure from business and industrial sectors, cial Framework (MFF) (which will include a reform of the
as well as some Member States, to delay or even disregard CAP) foresee cuts in funding for agriculture and cohesion.
the implementation of this legislation. Recent revisions The “Vision for Agriculture and Food”, presented by the Eu-
have been approved that move it away from the United ropean Commission, focuses on the protection (primarily
Nations Guidelines on Business and Human Rights. Fur- from external threats), competitiveness and sustainability
thermore, the legislation (and the approved amendments) of the European agri-food sector, both internally and ex-
do not adequately integrate safeguards that meet the needs ternally. This implies policies and actions with a potential
of small producers at the beginning of agri-food chains in harmful impact on the poorest and most vulnerable coun-
countries of the Global South, and should be combined with tries, including “greater assertiveness in defending exports
other measures and instruments to that end. of European products”, leaving the promotion of global
food and nutrition security to other instruments and poli-
The EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has focused cies (such as development policy). However, difficult times
almost exclusively on sustaining farmers’ income and Eu- are expected in the area of development cooperation, as it
ropean production, without any of its ten strategic objec- will tend to be diluted among other external action priori-
tives (from the CAP 2023-2027) being linked to the effects ties within the MFF. This is compounded by a decrease in
of this policy outside the European area. However, over the these budgets in most Member States and the increasing
decades, it has had several inconsistent effects on food exploitation of these flows to pursue security/defence and
security and in the agricultural sectors of lower-income economic/commercial interests.
countries, particularly in combination with other policies,
such as trade, energy, environmental, food, and transpor-
tation policies, competition laws, among others.
20

GUIDELINES FOR COHERENT POLICIES

Voluntary guidelines (FAO, United Nations)

On food and nutrition Voluntary Guidelines OECD-FAO Guidance

systems (2021) to Support the Progressive for Responsible Agricultural
Realisation of the Right Supply Chains
to Adequate Food in the Context
of National Food Security

Guidelines for the Support and Promotion Tool: The Great Food Puzzle
of Family Farming in the CPLP Member States Offers stakeholders a starting point
for transforming food systems
 21

6. CHECKLIST OF COHERENT POLICIES

The transformation of food systems requires a multifaceted approach that integrates several strategic
actions, adapted to the unique context of each country, and that coherently interconnects the various re-
lated policies – from agriculture to fisheries, from trade and investment to local development, from the
environment to access to justice. It also implies coherent advances in regulation, the implementation of
international commitments undertaken by countries, and the accountability of stakeholders along value
chains. A wide range of actors are called upon to collaborate and act in multiple fronts to advance the right
to food and ensure food and nutrition security for all.

Pillars of coherent policies

Coherence with poverty reduction and Coherence with integrated local Coherence with human, social
international development commitments development priorities and efforts and environmental rights
Ensure that agri-food systems evolve towards Sustained support for locally led Identification, liability and sanctioning
greater coherence with international princi- and/or appropriate agri-food systems, of unsustainable practices and human
ples, including through strengthening inter- ensuring adaptation to each context rights violations by stakeholders in the
national cooperation and global regulation. and alignment with the priorities of each management of natural resources
Combat inequalities in agri-food systems country, particularly in the poorest and and throughout the entire agri-food
and eliminate legislation, policies and most vulnerable countries, promoting value chain. Concrete implementation
practices, supports and incentives that resilience, integrated local and rural of a human rights-based approach to
are inconsistent with sustainable develop- development, and food sovereignty. agricultural, trade and investment policies.
ment in its various dimensions.

Second Agricultural Trade Fair of South Sudan Emphasizes Food and Human Security_2012_south sudan_UN7307423_d4f_Isaac Billy
22

Generally:

✓ Actively promote integrated, intergovernmental, multisectoral and multi-stakeholder approaches

to Food and Nutrition Security and the pursuit of the Right to Food, coherently interconnecting the various
relevant sectoral policies, the various pillars of food security – availability, access, use and stability of food
– and the various level of action, from local to global.
✓ Align agricultural policies, instruments, incentives and practices with sustainable development,
supporting nature-based solutions (NBS), agroecological and regenerative practices, family farming and
small-scale local production, increasing efficiency and reducing food waste throughout the value chain,
encouraging fair trade and supply chains, converting intensive and polluting activities, integrated territo-
rial and rural development.
✓ Implement and operationalise EU legislation on these matters, particularly on deforestation and
due diligence in corporate sustainability, to ensure that products marketed and consumed in Europe
respect human, social, labour and environmental rights in the value chains of the various products, goods
and services in the agri-food system.
✓ Ensure, in all agreements, projects and programmes, adequate consultation and informed participa-
tion of affected communities, respect for collective and customary land rights, and the right of commu-
nities to prior, free and informed consent regarding the use of land and natural resources at all project
stages, including simple and adequate mechanisms for reporting non-compliance, complaints, and ac-
cess to solutions by affected social groups and communities.
✓ Strengthen Development Education in this area and inform, raise awareness and mobilise about the
asymmetries, injustices, and imbalances in agri-food systems and the consequences of the food crisis for
people and the planet, as well as for appropriate solutions.
 23

Within the external/international scope:

✓ Contribute to strengthening multilateral and international cooperation on these matters by deepening

dialogue, diplomacy and advocacy to (i) respond to financing needs for food security in the context of huma-
nitarian appeals and crises, (ii) better monitor commitments made at the United Nations; (iii) conclude more
comprehensive and binding multilateral instruments that promote the right to food, particularly a Treaty on
the action of multinational corporations.
✓ Ensure that the definition and implementation of relevant sectoral policies within the scope of food and
nutrition security (agricultural, trade, fisheries, production and consumption, natural resources manage-
ment, energy and environmental policies, etc.) pay special attention to the impact on the poorest and most
vulnerable and to coherence with development objectives, in developing countries and globally – and moni-
toring these interconnections and impacts – in line with the PCD.
✓ Continue active and sustained support with a focus on priority partners of Portuguese Cooperation, to
increase the resilience and empowerment of communities, support the implementation of social protection
systems and strengthen regulatory capacities, improve access of small farmers to global value chains, re-
move discriminatory legislation and practices in access to productive resources (e.g. on women), and invest
in integrated and inclusive rural development, in accordance with the priorities and needs of partner coun-
tries and the guidelines of PCS 2030. Ensure that supported projects translate into effective capacity building
and technology and knowledge transfer to development partner countries.
✓ At the European level, promote the alignment of the European Union’s agricultural, trade, and agri-food
policies with the 2030 Agenda, including advocating for a more inclusive and fairer Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) that promotes food and nutrition security, through: (i) systematic monitoring of its impacts on
food security in developing countries; (ii) measures to minimise the local impacts of overproduction and ex-
ports of EU agricultural products to markets in the poorest and most vulnerable countries; (iii) support for
the conversion of agri-food activities with a significant environmental impact (farming, intensive agriculture,
etc.) and for the incorporation of more sustainable agroecological practices; (iv) reinforcement of support for
local rural development and small farmers, reducing inequalities and promoting social justice.
Credits:
Title: Development and Food and Nutrition Security – Framework for Action on Coherent Policies
Coordination: Patrícia Magalhães Ferreira
Research/Editing: Patrícia Magalhães Ferreira
Graphic design and layout: Matrioska Design
Publisher: FEC | Fundação Fé e Cooperação
Place of Publication: Lisbon
Publication Date: July 2025
Photo: (cover photo) SegAli_MINUSMA Funds a Farming Cooperative in Mali_UN Photo Harandane Dicko722769
Copyright © FEC – Fundação Fé e Cooperação and IMVF – Instituto Marquês de Valle Flôr

[Link]
This paper was produced as part of the project Coherence – The Axis of Development. Any opinions expressed in this paper are the sole
responsibility of the author, and do not express institutional positions or bind any institution.

This document is part of the production of knowledge and awareness about PCD, complemented by other studies and papers prepared.
For a more in-depth analysis on this topic, see the study Development and Food and Nutrition Security: Perspectives and (Im)balances
(2021) and the website [Link]

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