Electric Charges and Fields:

Comprehensive Theory with Extensive

Solved Examples
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Electric Charges
2. Coulomb's Law
3. Electric Field
4. Electric Field Lines
5. Superposition Principle
6. Continuous Charge Distributions
7. Gauss's Law
8. Electric Potential
9. Electric Dipole
10. Capacitors and Capacitance

1. Introduction to Electric Charges

1.1 Nature of Electric Charge
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that gives rise to electromagnetic
interactions. There are two types of charges:

Positive charge: Associated with protons

Negative charge: Associated with electrons
Key Properties:
Charges are quantized: where is an integer and C
Charges are conserved: Total charge in an isolated system remains constant
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Charge is invariant: Independent of reference frame

1.2 Quantization of Charge

The fundamental unit of charge is the elementary charge:

Any charge Q in nature is an integral multiple of elementary charge:

Example 1.1: A body contains excess electrons. Calculate the total charge on the
body.
Solution:
Number of excess electrons =
Each electron carries charge = C

Total charge =

2. Coulomb's Law
2.1 Statement and Mathematical Form
Coulomb's Law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Mathematically:

Where:
N⋅m²/C² (Coulomb's constant)

C²/(N⋅m²) (permittivity of free space)

= magnitudes of charges
= distance between charges

Vector Form:

Where is the unit vector from charge 1 to charge 2.

2.2 Properties of Coulomb Force

1. Central Force: Acts along the line joining the two charges
2. Conservative Force: Work done is independent of path
3. Long-range Force: Extends to infinity
4. Obeys Newton's Third Law:
5. Proportional to charge product: Depends on

2.3 Solved Examples on Coulomb's Law

Example 2.1 (Basic): Two point charges of μC and μC are placed 0.5 m apart in
vacuum. Find the force between them.
Solution:

Given:
 C
C
m
N⋅m²/C²
Using Coulomb's Law:

Since both charges are positive (like charges), the force is repulsive.
Answer: 0.216 N (repulsive)

Example 2.2 (Intermediate - Charge Distribution): A charge Q is divided into two parts: q
and (Q-q). For what value of q is the repulsion between the two charges maximum?

Solution:
Let the two charges be and , separated by distance .
The force of repulsion:

For maximum force, we need to maximize

Taking derivative with respect to q:

Also,

The maximum force is:

Conclusion: The repulsion is maximum when the charge is divided equally into two parts.
Answer:

Example 2.3 (JEE Mains Tough): Two point charges and are placed at a distance
apart. A third charge is placed at the midpoint. Calculate:
(a) Net force on the middle charge
(b) Net force on each positive charge
Solution:

Let's set up coordinates with one charge at , the other at , and at

.
(a) Force on middle charge :
Force due to left charge (at distance ):

Force due to right charge (at distance ):

Both forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Net force on middle charge = 0

(b) Force on one positive charge (say at ):
Force due to at origin (at distance ):

Force due to at (at distance ):

Net force on right positive charge:

By symmetry, force on left positive charge = (towards left)

Answers:
(a) 0
(b) (outward from center)

Example 2.4 (Advanced - Complex Geometry): Three charges are placed at the corners of
an equilateral triangle of side : charges are , , and . Find the net force on charge
located at the third vertex.

Solution:
Let's place the triangle with:
 Charge at point A
Charge at point B
Charge at point C
Distance from C to A = Distance from C to B =

Force on due to first (at A):

Force on due to second (at B):

The angle between CA and CB is 60° (internal angle of equilateral triangle).

Components of :

Along the bisector:

Components of :

Along the bisector:

The perpendicular components cancel by symmetry.

Net force:

Answer: (pointing away from the line AB)

3. Electric Field
3.1 Definition
The electric field at a point is defined as the electric force per unit charge placed at that
point.

Or more precisely, the electric field due to a source charge is:

Units: N/C or V/m
Key Points:

Electric field is a vector quantity

Direction is the direction of force on a positive test charge
For positive source charge, field lines radiate outward
For negative source charge, field lines converge inward

3.2 Electric Field due to a Point Charge

For a point charge Q, the electric field at distance r:

Where is the unit vector pointing away from Q.

In vector form:

Solved Examples on Electric Field

Example 3.1 (Basic): Find the electric field at a distance of 2 m from a point charge of
μC.

Solution:
Given:
C
m
N⋅m²/C²

Electric field:

Direction: Away from the positive charge (radially outward)

Answer: 6750 N/C (radially outward)

Example 3.2 (Intermediate - Two Point Charges): Two point charges and are
placed 2a apart. Find the electric field at point P located:
(a) At the midpoint of the line joining them
(b) At a distance x from the midpoint, along the perpendicular bisector
Solution:

Let's place at and at .

(a) At the midpoint (origin):
Field due to :

Field due to :

Both fields point in the same direction (left), so:

Answer (a): (pointing from positive to negative charge)

(b) At distance x on perpendicular bisector:

Distance from to P:
Distance from to P: (same)
Field due to :

This field makes an angle with the horizontal bisector.

Field due to :

This also makes an angle with the horizontal bisector.

The horizontal components cancel (by symmetry).

The vertical components add up:

where

Answer (b): (perpendicular to the line joining charges)

Example 3.3 (Tough - JEE Mains): A charge Q is distributed uniformly on a ring of radius R.
Find the electric field at a point on the axis of the ring at distance x from its center.
Solution:
Consider an element of the ring subtending angle at the center.

The charge on this element:

Distance from element to point P on axis:

Electric field due to this element:

This field can be resolved into:

Component along axis: where
Component perpendicular to axis:
By symmetry, the perpendicular components cancel when integrated over the entire ring.
Net field along axis:

Special Cases:

At center (x = 0):
At large distance (x >> R): (like point charge)

Answer:

Example 3.4 (Advanced - Uniformly Charged Disk): A circular disk of radius R has
uniform surface charge density σ. Find the electric field at a point on the axis at distance x
from the disk.

Solution:
Consider a thin ring element at radius r from center with thickness dr.
Charge on this ring:

Distance from ring to point:

Electric field due to this ring (using Example 3.3 result):
Total field:

Let , then

For :

Since :

Special Cases:
At disk surface (x = 0):
At large distance (x >> R): (like point charge)

Answer:

4. Electric Field Lines

4.1 Definition and Properties
Electric field lines are imaginary curves whose tangent at any point gives the direction of
electric field at that point.
Properties:

1. Field lines start from positive charges (sources) and end at negative charges (sinks)
2. Field lines never intersect
3. Density of field lines indicates field strength
4. Field lines are perpendicular to conductor surfaces
5. Inside a conductor, electric field is zero
4.2 Field Line Patterns
Point positive charge: Radial outward lines
Point negative charge: Radial inward lines
Two equal opposite charges: Lines emerge from positive and end at negative
Two equal like charges: Lines repel each other

5. Superposition Principle
5.1 Statement
The net electric field at any point due to a system of charges is the vector sum of electric
fields due to individual charges.

Similarly for force:

5.2 Solved Examples on Superposition

Example 5.1 (Intermediate): Three point charges of μC, μC, and μC are placed
at vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 1 m. Find the electric field at the centroid of the
triangle.

Solution:
For an equilateral triangle with side m, the distance from each vertex to centroid is:

Let's place charges at A, B, C with:

Charge at A: C
Charge at B: C
Charge at C: C
Electric field at centroid due to each charge:

(pointing away from A)

(pointing away from B)

(pointing towards C, attractive)

These three vectors are at 120° to each other. and make an angle of 120°.
Let's use component method. Taking A-B line as reference with centroid at origin.
at angle 210° from positive x-axis
at angle 330° from positive x-axis
at angle 90° from positive x-axis

After vector addition (using components):

The net field can be calculated as:

Magnitude:

Answer: Approximately N/C

Example 5.2 (Tough - Multiple Charges on a Line): Four charges of μC are placed at
the corners of a square of side 0.5 m. Find the electric field at the center of the square.

Solution:
By symmetry, each charge is at distance:
Each charge produces an electric field at the center:

This field points radially outward from each charge (since all charges are positive).
The direction of field from each charge:
From corner 1: Along diagonal to center
From corner 2: Along diagonal to center
etc.

By symmetry, these four vectors cancel each other out exactly (they point along diagonals
toward center, equally spaced at 90°).
Net field at center = 0
Answer: 0 N/C

Example 5.3 (JEE Mains Advanced): Two charges and are placed at distance 2a
apart on the x-axis. A charge is placed on the y-axis at distance y from the origin. Find
the force on charge Q.

Solution:
Let be at and be at . Charge is at .

Distance from to :
Distance from to : (same)
Force on due to (repulsive):

This force points from to , making angle where:

Force on due to (attractive):

This force points from to , also making angle with horizontal.

Components:
 :

Net force:
(horizontal components cancel)
(vertical components cancel)

Therefore, Net force on Q = 0

This can be understood physically: Since the two charges and form a dipole, and Q is
on the perpendicular bisector (equidistant from both), the forces balance.

Answer: 0 (or negligible at large distances)

6. Continuous Charge Distributions

6.1 Types of Charge Distributions
1. Linear charge density ( ): Charge per unit length

2. Surface charge density ( ): Charge per unit area

3. Volume charge density ( ): Charge per unit volume

6.2 Electric Field due to Continuous Distributions

For continuous distributions:

6.3 Solved Examples on Continuous Distributions

Example 6.1 (Basic): A uniformly charged rod of length L and total charge Q lies along the
x-axis from origin to point (L, 0). Find the electric field at point P on the y-axis at distance y
from origin.
Solution:

Linear charge density:

Consider element dx at distance x from origin. Its charge:

Distance from element to point P:

Electric field due to element:

This has components:

Integration:

Let , :

Using standard integral or substitution :

Since :

Answer: ,

Example 6.2 (Intermediate): An infinite uniformly charged line with linear charge density
λ lies along the z-axis. Find the electric field at perpendicular distance r from the line.
Solution:

Consider an element of the line at height z. Its charge:

Distance from element to point P at perpendicular distance r:

Electric field due to element:

The radial component (perpendicular to the line):

The axial component (along the line): cancels by symmetry.

Total field:

Let :

Since :

Answer: (perpendicular to the line)

Example 6.3 (Tough - Charged Sphere): A uniformly charged sphere of radius R has total
charge Q. Find the electric field:
(a) Outside the sphere (r > R)
(b) Inside the sphere (r < R)

Solution:
(a) For r > R (outside):
By spherical symmetry, all the charge Q acts as if concentrated at the center.

(Same as point charge)

(b) For r < R (inside):
Consider a Gaussian sphere of radius r < R inside the uniformly charged sphere.

Volume charge density:

Charge enclosed by Gaussian sphere:

By Gauss's law (detailed in next section):

Answers:

(a) (outside)
(b) (inside, linearly increasing with r)

7. Gauss's Law
7.1 Statement and Mathematical Form
Gauss's Law: The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the enclosed
charge divided by .

Where:

is the electric flux

is the electric field
is the area vector (outward normal)
is the enclosed charge
is the permittivity of free space

7.2 Electric Flux

Electric flux through a surface:

For uniform field perpendicular to area A:

7.3 Applications of Gauss's Law
1. Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution

(for r > R)

2. Cylindrically Symmetric Distribution

(for r > R)
3. Planar Charge Distribution

(independent of distance)

7.4 Solved Examples on Gauss's Law

Example 7.1 (Basic): A uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R carries total charge Q.
Find the electric field:
(a) Outside the shell
(b) Inside the shell

Solution:
(a) Outside (r > R):
Consider Gaussian surface as a sphere of radius r > R.

By symmetry, is radial and constant on the Gaussian surface.

By Gauss's law:

(b) Inside (r < R):

Gaussian surface of radius r < R encloses no charge.

Therefore:

Answers:
 (a) (outside)
(b) (inside)

Example 7.2 (Intermediate): An infinite uniformly charged plane with surface charge
density σ. Find the electric field on each side.
Solution:

Consider a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder with one end on the plane and
extending on both sides.
Let the area of each end cap be A.
Enclosed charge:

The electric field is perpendicular to the plane (by symmetry).

Using Gauss's law:

(Field through both end caps; field through cylindrical side = 0 since E is parallel to it)

This is independent of distance from the plane!

Answer: (on each side, perpendicular to plane)

Example 7.3 (Tough - Coaxial Cylinders): A long coaxial cable consists of an inner
conducting cylinder of radius a (charge λ per unit length) and outer conducting cylinder of
radius b (charge -λ per unit length). Find the field in all regions: r < a, a < r < b, r > b.
Solution:

By cylindrical symmetry, the field is radial and constant at distance r.

Using Gauss's law with cylindrical surface of radius r and length L:

Region 1 (r < a, inside inner conductor):

Inside a conductor, E = 0

Region 2 (a < r < b, between cylinders):

Enclosed charge:
Region 3 (r > b, outside both cylinders):
Enclosed charge:

Answers:

r < a:
a < r < b:
r > b:

Example 7.4 (JEE Mains Advanced - Non-uniform Distribution): A sphere of radius R has
charge density varying as (where is a constant). Find:
(a) Total charge
(b) Electric field as function of r inside and outside
Solution:
(a) Total charge:

(b) Electric field:

Outside (r > R):

Inside (r < R):

Enclosed charge at radius r:

By Gauss's law:
Answers:

Outside:
Inside: (proportional to )

8. Electric Potential
8.1 Definition
Electric potential at a point is the work done per unit charge in bringing a test charge from
infinity to that point, against the electric field.

Units: Volt (V) = J/C

8.2 Potential due to Point Charge

At infinity, V = 0.

8.3 Relationship between E and V

In one dimension:

8.4 Solved Examples on Electric Potential

Example 8.1 (Basic): Find the electric potential at distance 0.5 m from a point charge of +2
μC.

Solution:

Answer: 36 kV

Example 8.2 (Intermediate): Two point charges +q and -q are placed at distance 2a apart.
Find the potential at:
(a) Midpoint
(b) A point on perpendicular bisector at distance x
Solution:
Let +q be at x = -a and -q be at x = +a.

(a) At midpoint (x = 0):

Answer (a): 0 V
(b) On perpendicular bisector at distance x:

Distance from +q to point:

Distance from -q to point:

Answer (b): 0 V (everywhere on perpendicular bisector)

This makes sense: The perpendicular bisector of a dipole is an equipotential surface at V = 0.

Example 8.3 (Tough): A uniformly charged ring of radius R and charge Q lies in the x-y
plane. Find:
(a) Potential at center
(b) Potential at distance z on axis
Solution:

(a) At center:
All points on ring are at distance R from center.

Answer (a):

(b) On axis at distance z:

All points on ring are at distance from the point.

Answer (b):

Example 8.4 (JEE Mains Advanced): A uniformly charged sphere of radius R and total
charge Q. Find potential:
(a) Outside (r > R)
(b) Inside (r < R)
Solution:
(a) Outside (r > R):

(b) Inside (r < R):

The potential is the sum of:
Potential due to charge within radius r (acts as if at center)
Potential due to shell between r and R

For charge uniformly distributed with density :

Charge within r:

Using potential formula:

Or using the relation :

From Example 6.3, inside:

Answers:

Outside:
Inside:

At r = 0 (center):
At r = R (surface): (continuous)
9. Electric Dipole
9.1 Definition
An electric dipole consists of two charges +q and -q separated by distance 2a. The dipole
moment is:

(pointing from negative to positive charge)

Or simply: where d is separation.

9.2 Electric Field due to Dipole

On axial line (aligned with dipole):

(for r >> a)

On equatorial line (perpendicular to dipole):

(for r >> a, pointing opposite to dipole moment)

The negative sign indicates opposite direction.

9.3 Solved Examples on Dipole

Example 9.1 (Basic): An electric dipole has charge ±2 μC separated by 0.1 m. Calculate the
dipole moment.

Solution:

Answer: C⋅m

Example 9.2 (Intermediate): An electric dipole of moment p is placed in uniform electric

field E at angle θ to the field. Find:
(a) Torque on dipole
(b) Potential energy
Solution:
(a) Torque:

This torque tends to align the dipole with the field.

Answer (a):
(b) Potential energy:

When (dipole aligned): (minimum/most stable)

When (dipole anti-aligned): (maximum/unstable)
Answer (b):

Example 9.3 (Tough - Dipole in Non-uniform Field): An electric dipole is placed in a non-
uniform electric field. Show that it experiences both torque and translational force.
Solution:

Let the dipole consist of charges +q at position and -q at position .

The forces are:

Net force:

If field is non-uniform, , so:

(translational force exists)

The torque:

(as before)
So: Torque always exists (if dipole not aligned with field)
Conclusion: In non-uniform field, dipole experiences both:

1. Torque:
2. Translational force: ≈ for small dipole

Example 9.4 (JEE Mains Advanced): An electric dipole of moment p is placed on the axial
line of another dipole at distance r. Find:
(a) Force on first dipole
(b) Torque on first dipole (assuming it's aligned with the field)
Solution:
Field due to second dipole on axial line:

This field is non-uniform (varies with r).

The electric field is

Field gradient:

(a) Force on first dipole (of moment ):

Negative sign indicates attractive force (dipoles attract when aligned in same direction).

Answer (a): (attractive if aligned)

(b) Torque:
If the first dipole is aligned with the field,

Answer (b): 0 (if already aligned with field)

10. Capacitors and Capacitance

10.1 Definition
Capacitance is the ratio of charge on a conductor to the potential difference across it.

Units: Farad (F) = C/V

10.2 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor

For two parallel plates of area A separated by distance d with dielectric constant κ:

For vacuum/air (κ = 1):

10.3 Energy Stored in Capacitor

10.4 Solved Examples on Capacitors

Example 10.1 (Basic): A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 100 cm² separated by 2
mm. Calculate its capacitance.
Solution:
Given:

F/m

Answer: 44.25 pF

Example 10.2 (Intermediate - Energy): A capacitor of capacitance 2 μF is charged to

potential 200 V. Calculate:
(a) Charge stored
(b) Energy stored
Solution:
Given: F, V

(a) Charge:

(b) Energy:

Answers:

(a) mC
(b) J
Example 10.3 (Tough - Series and Parallel): Two capacitors of 3 μF and 6 μF are
connected to a 100 V supply. Find equivalent capacitance and energy stored:
(a) In series
(b) In parallel
Solution:

(a) Series:

μ
Charge: C
Energy: J

Answer (a): μF, J

(b) Parallel:

μ
Energy: J

Answer (b): μF, J

Example 10.4 (JEE Mains Advanced): A parallel plate capacitor charged to voltage V is
disconnected from the source. The distance between plates is then doubled. Find:
(a) Change in potential
(b) Change in electric field
(c) Change in energy
Solution:

Initial state:
Voltage:
Capacitance:
Charge:
Field:
Energy:

After disconnection and changing distance to 2d:

Since capacitor is disconnected, charge Q remains constant.
New capacitance:

(a) New potential:

Potential doubles
(b) Electric field:

Since charge is constant but distance doubles:

Electric field remains same

(c) New energy:

Energy doubles

Answers:
(a) Potential increases from to
(b) Electric field remains
(c) Energy increases from to

MASTER SUMMARY OF KEY FORMULAS

Coulomb's Law

Electric Field
Point charge:
Uniform infinite wire:
Infinite charged plane:
Uniformly charged sphere (outside):
Uniformly charged sphere (inside):
Gauss's Law

Electric Potential
Point charge:
Uniformly charged sphere (outside):
Uniformly charged sphere (inside):

Relationship between E and V

Electric Dipole
Moment: (product of charge and separation)
Torque in field:
Potential energy:
Field on axial line:
Field on equatorial line:

Capacitance
Parallel plate:
Series:
Parallel:
Energy:

ADDITIONAL TOUGH JEE MAINS PROBLEMS

Problem 1: A non-conducting sphere of radius R is uniformly charged with charge density
ρ. Find the potential difference between center and surface.
Solution:

Potential at surface: where

Potential at center (using result from Example 8.4):

Potential difference:

Problem 2: Two identical conducting spheres carry charges Q and 3Q. They are brought
into contact and then separated. Find the charges on each sphere.
Solution:

Before contact: Charges are Q and 3Q (separate)

When brought in contact, they form single conductor. Total charge = Q + 3Q = 4Q
In equilibrium, charge distributes equally (since identical spheres):

Charge on each =

Problem 3: A uniform electric field exists in the space. A small electric dipole of
moment p is placed in this field. Find the net force on the dipole.
Solution:

For a uniform field, the forces on positive and negative charges are equal in magnitude:
and
These forces are parallel and equal, so they form a couple (not a net force).

Net force = 0 (only torque acts)

Problem 4: Two small conducting spheres of radius r are placed with centers at distance d
apart (d >> r). They carry charges Q₁ and Q₂. Find the charge on the inner surface facing
each other.
Solution:
When two conducting spheres are far apart, charges distribute almost uniformly on outer
surfaces.

However, due to induction, there's slight redistribution.

For d >> r, most charge remains on outer surface, with only small redistribution.
The charge on inner surface facing each other depends on the specific geometry and can be
solved using method of images.

For this simpler case: Charge remains approximately on outer surfaces, with minimal
charge on inner surfaces.
CONCLUSION
This comprehensive guide covers all fundamental and advanced topics in Electric Charges
and Fields for JEE Mains. The extensive solved examples span from basic calculations to
the toughest problems asked in actual JEE examinations.
Key Learning Points:

1. Master Coulomb's Law and superposition principle

2. Understand electric field concept and field lines
3. Apply Gauss's Law for symmetric charge distributions
4. Calculate electric potential and potential difference
5. Analyze electric dipoles in fields
6. Work with capacitors and energy storage
Regular practice with diverse problem types is essential for success in JEE Mains and
Advanced examinations.