Module 4

Intersection Layouts
Intersection
• Area where two or more roads join or cross each other
• Intersection Leg / Approach: Roadway radiating from an intersection
• May be located at same level (At-Grade) or at different levels (Grade-Separated)
• May be uncontrolled or priority controlled
• May be time-separated or space separated

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Intersection Types
• At-Grade intersections:
• Intersection where all roadways join or cross at same level
• Allow traffic manoeuvres like merging, diverging, crossing and weaving
• Can be classified by:
• Shape
• Geometric
• Control

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 3-Legged: T-junction, Y-junction

IRC:SP:41-1994

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 3-Legged: T-junction

[Link] [Link]

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 3-Legged: T-junction

[Link] [Link])
Flared unchannelized

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 3-Legged: Y-junction

[Link] [Link]
Channelized unchannelized

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 At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 4-Legged: Cross, Scissor

IRC:SP:41-1994 [Link]

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 4-Legged: Cross

[Link] [Link]

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• 4-Legged: Cross

[Link] [Link]

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 [Link] [Link]

At-Grade Intersections: Shapes

4-Legged: Staggered
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 [Link] [Link]

At-Grade Intersections: Shapes

4-Legged: Staggered
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 [Link]

At-Grade Intersections: Shapes

4-Legged: Skewed and Staggered

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[Link] [Link]

At-Grade Intersections: Shapes

4-Legged: Skewed and Acute Angled

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• Rotary intersection

[Link] [Link]

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At-Grade Intersections: Shapes
• Multi-leg intersection

IRC:SP:41-1994

[Link]

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 IUT India ([Link])
([Link])
• Plain (Unchannelized)
AT-Grade Intersections: • Flared
Geometric • Channelized

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 (IRC:SP:87-2013)

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At-Grade Intersection: By Control
• Un-controlled intersection
• Priority controlled intersection
• Signalised intersection

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Uncontrolled Intersection

(IUT India) ([Link]) ([Link])

• Suitable for roads with relatively lower traffic volume and neither of the crossing
traffic flows have precedence on other.
• Points of conflicts are highest in such intersection
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 Uncontrolled Intersection

[Link]

[Link] [Link]

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 ([Link]) ([Link]) ([Link])

Priority Controlled
No delay to traffic on major road and traffic on minor road is controlled by GIVE-WAY or STOP sign.

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Signalised Intersection
• Can be designed as a two-phase or more than two-phase signal system
• For highest safety, only traffic of similar nature or from one leg is allowed to enter
at a time

[Link]

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10/14/2022 1:15 PM 24
Grade-Separated Intersections
• Grade Separated intersections:
• Highest form of intersection treatment
• Causes least delay and hazard to crossing traffic
• Separation may be achieved using either underpass or overbridge
• Grade-Separated – Without Ramps: Space separated
• Grade-Separated – With Ramps (Interchanges): Space separated

([Link])

25
Grade-Separated Intersections

[Link] ([Link])

26
Grade-Separated: Without Ramps
• Intermediate solution, relatively cheaper (compared to an interchange)
• Crossing traffic is segregated at two or more levels due to moderate to high traffic
in both the directions
• Segregation cannot be provided by an interchange due to cost consideration
• May be under-bridge or over-bridge or flyover
• All type of movements are accomplished at surface level through parallel service
roads / slip lanes

27
([Link]) ([Link])
28
(IRC:SP:87-2013)

29
(IRC:SP:87-2013)

30
(IRC:SP:87-2013)

31
(IRC:SP:87-2013)

32
(IRC:SP:87-2013)

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 Interchanges
With Ramps

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Interchanges
• Grade-separated intersections with ramps
• Provided where access control is needed
• Crossing traffic is heavy and other intersections fail to handle it, or leads to
excessive delay or crashes
• Desirable spacing on expressways is 20 to 30 km, minimum absolute is 3 km
• Two categories:
• Service interchanges
• System interchanges

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Service Interchanges
• An interchange that does not maintain free flow through all its elements.
• A higher category road (toll road) meeting a lower category road (non-toll road)
• Lower category of road can be a highway / arterial / sub-arterial having at-grade
intersections
• Trumpet or T-type interchanges are preferred
• Advantages:
• Suitable for three-way junction with no weaving
• Limited requirement of ROW area
• Single point toll plaza

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Service Interchanges

IRC:SP:99-2013

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 Trumpet

Chitoor-Thatchur Exp IRC:SP:99-2013

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System Interchange
• An interchange that maintains free flow through all its elements for all major
movements
• Connects major road to a major road and handle high volume of traffic
• Major road can be a highway, major arterial that does NOT have at-grade
intersection
• The connecting ramps can be directional, semi-directional or having large radius
loops

IRC:SP:99-2013
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T Interchange

[Link]

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System Interchange
• Basic forms:
• Three-leg interchanges - T-type configuration, requires larger loops and semi-directional
ramps of larger radius based on traffic volume. This may also require catering for frontage
road.
• Four-leg interchanges - Forms may be Diamond, Clover leaf directional and semi-directional
interchanges and composite interchanges. These require combination of maneuvers like
straight, curved or with loops and weaving. These configurations require multi-level
structures.
• Both forms can be partially or fully grade separated

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 [Link]

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 [Link]

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 [Link] [Link]

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 [Link]

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Designs Principles

At-Grade Intersections
[Link]

46
Design Principles
Uniformity and Simplicity

Minimum Conflict Points or Area

Safety

Alignment and Profile

Controls
47
Uniformity and Simplicity
No confusion in design
• Speed, paths, control devices, Self explaining and Similar traffic flow
geometric and physical features Universal signs and patterns should have
markings similar type design

Consideration to
Not based on Not complex requiring
capabilities and
expectation ‘To-Follow’ decision making
limitations of users

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Uniformity and Simplicity
• Major elements requiring uniformity are:
• Design speed
• Horizontal curves, corner or island radius
• Turning paths
• Super-elevation
• Level of shoulders and width
• Speed change lanes and their lengths
• Channelization
• Signs and markings

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Minimum Conflict Point or Area
• Convert 4-legged intersection into a roundabout
• This reduces the number of conflict points (32 to 12)
• This may be warranted on a rural highway

• Signalize an intersection
• Conflict points reduces to 16 for a two-phase signal design and may be eliminated if more
signal phases are used

• Channelization
• Important for directional traffic making flows smooth and manoeuvres safe

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Minimum Conflict Point or Area
• Priority for crossing traffic
• Give way sign; bicycle box
• If the crossroads are of same importance, then priority shall be given to traffic on right
• Converting a 4-legged crossing into a staggered crossing with two opposite
crossing arms spaced at more than 45 m
• Right-left stagger better than Left-right stagger

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 [Link]

Minimum Conflict Point or Area

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Minimum Conflict Point or Area
• Control of high proportion of Right-turning traffic
• Provision of right turning lane / channelization on minor road / Priority to right turning –
signal phasing / police control
• Right turning lane on a major road will help in preventing rear-end collisions
• Provision for left turning traffic
• Acceleration lane on major road for turning traffic from a minor road
• Deceleration lane on major road for turning traffic on to a minor road

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Minimum Conflict Point or Area

IRC:SP:41-1994

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Minimum Conflict Point or Area

IRC:SP:41-1994

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Conflict Points and Area

IRC:SP:41-1994

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([Link])

[Link] [Link]

57
Safety
• Number and intensity of crashes
• Location of crashes
• Relation between crash frequency (per year) and traffic volume:
C = A / [Q*q]1/2
A = number of crashes in a year
Q = Traffic volume on major road (ADT, in 1000 vehicles)
q = Traffic volume on minor road (ADT, in 1000 vehicles)

58
Safety
• Measures:
• Eliminate higher trafficked side road
• May reduce crashes by 30% in rural areas
• Convert highly trafficked crossroads into staggered junctions
• May cause reduction in crashes by 60%
• Controls in urban areas
• Access control
• Parking control
• Land development control

([Link])

59
Hidden Crossroads
60
Alignment and Profile
• Roads should intersect at right angles. No realignment is required if crossing
angle is more than 60 degrees
• Intersection area should be flat as far as possible
• Avoid intersection:
• On sharp curves
• With grade change in excess of 2% on multi-lane highways, 3% on other highways with
absolute maximum as 6%
• Of a minor road with a multi-lane highway which has narrow median
• Of a minor road with a multi-lane highway on a curve due to problem of grade adjustment

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Alignment and Profile
• Adjust the profile of minor road to suit the grade line on major road if it is carried
across the intersection area
• Changes from one grade to another grade should be gradual
• On an unchallelized intersection catering to low-speed traffic and stop signs, the
crowns of the two roads shall be merged giving consideration to the drainage,
etc.
• Sight distance – Intermediate Sight Distance
• Design speed for different elements of an intersection ~ 60% of approach speed
• Design speed for ramps – not less than 40 km/h
• Design vehicle for an intersection on a highway – Semi-trailer combination

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Alignment Control

IRC:SP:41-1994

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Alignment Control

IRC:SP:41-1994

64
Cross Road Profile
Alignment Control

IRC:SP:41-1994

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Alignment Control

[Link]

67
Controls
• On relative speed and path of vehicles
• On area of conflict
• Through control devices
• Through selection of best crossing locations and paths
• On turning movements
• Realignment of crossing paths, change in geometric – say curve radii at turning
• Illumination of intersection and approach areas

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Controls

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

69
Use of Control Devices
• Suitable location to be identified to:
• Serve as advance notice of the approaches to the intersection
• Direct drivers into appropriate lanes for diverging / merging movements
• Identify routes and directions
• Show distance to destinations
• Provide other information of importance to the drivers

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IRC:SP:41

71
IRC:SP:41 IRC:SP:99-2013

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 Visibility Requirements at Intersections
• Two considerations:
• Overall visibility of an intersection
• Sight Distance Triangle covering
approaches to the intersection
• Un-controlled Intersection

IRC:66-1976

73
Visibility Requirements at Intersections
• Un-controlled Intersection
• Sight distance ~ Safe stopping sight distance (SSD) with respect to the point of intersection of
the trajectory of the two vehicles
• Area so formed should be free of obstructions
• If area or triangle is not free then ascertain the free area, estimate the distance from point of
intersection and impose speed limit

74
Visibility Distance at Uncontrolled Intersection
Speed, km/h SSD, m ISD, m
20 20
25 25
30 30
40 45
50 60
60 80
65 90
80 120
100 180

75
 Visibility Requirements at Priority Intersections
Design speed on Minimum visibility
major road (km/h) distance along major
road (meters)
100 220
80 180
65 145
50 110
IRC:66-1976

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Design speed
• Approach speed / open-highway speed
• Design speed for elements to be designed
• 40% of approach speed in built-up area and 60% in open area
• Transition speed for design of speed change elements
• Entry / exit or merging / diverging speed
• For rural areas, ruling design speed can be used. Minimum design speed can be used
under restricted conditions
• Speed lower than design speed may be considered in CBD areas and higher can be
considered in sub-urban areas

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Design Traffic Volume
• Designed for peak hour flows
• Can be assumed as 8 to 10% of the daily flow (with directional flows as 60:40)
• If flow cannot be predicted for longer period, then stage period can be considered as 10 years

• Radius of Curve at Intersection

• Depends on turning characteristics of the design vehicle, their numbers and speed at entry /
exit

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Radius of Curve at Intersection
• Four types are possible
• Single circular curve – issues of off-tracking
• 3-centered compound curve with offsets – fits better to wheel path but increase paved area by
20%
• Use of symmetrical curve is better if number of semi-trailers are high
• Simple curve with offsets and taper – fits closet to 3-centered compound curve and keeps paved
area minimum
• Transition curves – closely follows wheel path

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Design Vehicle
• For intersections in rural areas, the curves shall be designed for either single unit truck / bus
11-12 m long or semi-trailer of 16 m length or truck trailer of 18 m length. Mostly semi-trailer
are used.
• If intersection is with minor road, then use single unit truck as a design vehicle
• If intersection is with major road, then use semi-trailer as a design vehicle
• Sub-urban arterial sections, semi-trailer is considered for speed change lanes and
channelization

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Design Vehicle
• On arterial / sub-arterial and non-arterial urban areas, single unit truck or bus shall be
considered for design
• In urban CBD, single unit trucks with encroachment on side lane during turning is allowed
• In residential areas, passenger car can be considered

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Attributes for Intersection Design
• Radius of Curve in Urban Areas
• Minimum turning radius shall be used
• Passenger car 7.3 m, single unit truck 12.8 m, semi-trailer or single unit bus 12.2 m, large
semi-trailer 13.71 m, and large semi-truck 18.2 m
• Common radii used is 4.5 to 7.3 m for passenger car and 9 to 15 m for trucks and buses
• 3-centered curve or simple curve with offset or spiral shall be used to accommodate larger
vehicles

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Attributes
• Width of
Turning Lanes

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Factors Affecting Layout Design
• Human factors
• Traffic factors
• Road factors
• Environment factors
• Economic factors

84
 Driving habits

Ability to make decisions

Human Driver expectancy

Factors Decision and reaction time

Conformance to natural paths of movement

Pedestrian use and habits

85
 Design and actual capacities

Design hour turning movements

Size and operating characteristics of vehicles

Traffic Types of movements

Factors Vehicle speed

Transit involvement

Vehicle Crash experience

Traffic mix

86
 Vertical and
Number of
horizontal Sight distance
intersecting legs
alignment

Available right Angle of

Conflict area
of way intersection

Road Factors
Speed change Geometric Traffic control
lanes features devices

Need for
Safety features upgradation in
future

87
Environmental Factors
Character and use of abutting property

Lighting equipment

Safety features

Environmental features

88
 Cost of improvement

Economic Relative change in the cost of operation of traffic

on intersection
Factors
Effect of controls on development in abutting land

89
Auxiliary Lanes

Volume of traffic
Three Types Helps in:
decides:
• Storage lanes • Improving the • Length of lane
• Right turning lanes capacity of an • Width of lane
• Speed change intersection
lanes (acceleration • Improves safety
lanes and
deceleration lanes)

90
 Provided if proportion of right turning traffic
is high and their stopping on through lane
would block or hinder the through traffic

Storage and Capacity of these lane should be such

Right Turning that formation of queue in one lane
should not make other inaccessible
Lanes
1.5 times average
Normal length of number of vehicles by
storage lane: type expected to use the
lane during peak hour

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IRC SP 041

92
Storage and Right Turning Lanes
• Length of storage lane if not more than 1 or 2
vehicles are expected to stop (say rural
sections):

Design speed, km/h Length of storage lane

(including 30 – 45 m taper)
120 200
100 160
80 130
60 110

IRC SP 041
50 90
93
Storage and Right Turning Lane
• Minimum Length of storage lane based on transition curve length and taper:
Width of lane, m length of storage lane, m
3.00 60.0
3.25 62.5
3.50 65.0 IRC SP 041

94
Storage Lanes
• Example: Calculate the length of a right turning lane and through lanes (2 Nos.)
using the given data: Signal with a cycle time of 90 sec, Right turning volume at
design peak hour as 150 vehicles, composition 10% trucks, through traffic as 520
vehicles with 15% trucks. Assume average length of cars as 4.5 m and of truck as
11 m
• Solution:
• No of cycles in peak hour = 3600 / 90 = 40
• No of right turning vehicles in one cycle = 150 / 40 = 4
• No of through vehicles in one cycle = 520 / 40 x 2 = 7

95
Storage Lanes
• Solution :
• Length of right turning lane = 4 × 0.90 × 4.5 + 4 × 0.10 × 11 = 20.6 m
• Length of through lane = 7 × 0.85 × 4.5 + 7 × 0.15 × 11 = 38.25 m
• Provide full width (3.00 m) storage lane as 40 m
• Tapered section at 1 in 20 for 3.00 m wide lane = 60 m
• Add clearance of minimum 3 m in front of the island for smooth turning of
the vehicles

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Speed Change lanes
• Rarely provided in urban areas
• These are usually provided on rural highways especially multi-lane systems

IRC SP 041

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 Allows the vehicles taking left turn to join the main highway
to join at speed of the nearest lane on main highway

Set-back of 5.4 m at the tangent point of turning curve

Acceleration leading into or out of minor road

lane Reduce the lane width from 4.5 m at start to 4.25 m at end
before turning

Provision of edge marking 150 mm wide at setback of 100

mm from kerb

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 Provision of chevrons at the nose of the island

Recommended if future traffic on acceleration lane is

expected to be more than 1000 pcu/day
Acceleration
lane Length is considered from nose tip of channelizing island
towards the exit from minor road

When acceleration lane are on down gradient their length

may be reduced by (1 – 0.08G) times normal length , where G
is gradient in percentage

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 IRC SP 041

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 These lanes are of greater significance as any vehicle desiring
to leave a major highway has to slow down which may affect
the following vehicles on through lanes

Deceleration lanes are needed on the near side of the left

turning traffic and on the right turning lane where provision
Deceleration is made for right turning traffic

Lane In the case of near side deceleration lanes for left turning:

• The length should be such that it allows the vehicles to slow

down from speed on major road to a speed that is safe enough to
negotiate the turning curve
• The turning speed should be 30 to 40 km/h
• These are recommended for intersections where future traffic on
deceleration lanes is expected to be more than 750 PCU/day
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 Right turn deceleration lanes in central reserve should be
provided for all gaps on dual carriageway roads

On three-lane roads, central lane should be marked for right

turning traffic where the product of estimated future cutting
Deceleration flows is more than 1 million PCU/day

These provisions may also be made for roads with lesser

Lane flows but with road user crash records thus warranting the
provision, or on two-lane roads where changes can be
incorporated in realignment

On overloaded three-lane roads or where junction is at crest,

dual carriageway shall be provided for short lengths and
deceleration lanes may be used for right turning traffic

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 On upgrades, the length is reduced by multiplying factor (1 – 0.03G)
and on downgrades it is increased by a multiplying factor (1 +
0.06G), where G is the gradient expressed as a percentage

The median is to be shortened at the right turning point to facilitate

Deceleration easy turning. This is setback by 3 m from tangent of a crossroad

Lane
The right turn deceleration lane should

Has a return radii of

Not be less than 3 m Be parallel sided
180 m and a taper of
wide with entry
30 – 45 m

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 IRC SP 041

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[Link]

Channelization
Island Designs and Practices

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Channelization
• Objectives are to -
• Control speed of vehicles
• Control path of vehicles and angle of conflict
• Separate conflicting traffic
• Accommodate vehicles requiring specific maneuvers
• Reduce excessive carriageway areas to assist pedestrians to cross
• Place traffic control devices

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Forms

IRC SP 041

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Forms

IRC SP 041

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Forms

IRC SP 041

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 Design Principles
Corner or Directional Islands

Center or Divisional Islands

Pedestrian Refuge Islands

Influence of Type of Traffic

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 Usually, triangular

• 4.5 sq. m. in urban

Minimum size due to visibility areas
Corner or • 7.0 sq. m. in rural areas

Directional Minimum size of island 3.0 m,

Islands but desirably 4.50 m on a side
after rounding when placed as
pavement marking

Corner Radius 0.30 to 0.60 m

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 • 0.30 to 0.60 m for small size islands
Offset of edge of the
• 060 to 0.90 m for medium size island
lane from vehicle path • 0.90 to 1.50 m for large size island

Corner or Offset is increased from

0.60 m to 1.80 m in the case
• Based on type, size and
turning radii of the largest
of curved section vehicle supposed to use
Directional
Islands Flare length minimum 0.30
m, Approx. 5 to 10 times of
the offset

Painted raised kerb

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 Corner Island

IRC SP 041

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 Corner Island

IRC SP 041
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 Corner Island

IRC SP 041

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 Their location and alignment is important

Center or Clear area in front of the island, length ~ 1.5 s travel time *
approach speed

Divisional
Islands Area is marked and gives funnel effect due to excess width at
nose

Turning radii should follow the turning radius of the largest

vehicle expected to use the intersection

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Center or Divisional Islands
• Approach length of island leading to intersection ~ 3.0 s travel time * approach
speed
• Not less than 1.20 m wide and 6.0 m in length
• Under exceptional cases, this width can be reduced to 0.60 m
• Shall have sufficient width to permit placement of traffic control devices

• Island shape is determined by wheel track, radii of turns, island nose radii,
approach width, geometry of the island and excess space to be covered by the
island

118
Divisional Islands

IRC SP 041

119
Center or Divisional Islands

IRC SP 041

120
Center or Divisional Islands

IRC SP 041

121
Issues and Remedies - Roundabout
Issues and Remedies

123
Issues and Remedies

124
Issues and Remedies

125
Issues and Remedies

126
Issues and Remedies

127
Issues and Remedies

128
Issues and Remedies
Safety issues

Modified
junction
design

129
Issues and Remedies

130
Issues and Remedies

131
 Should be considered if carriageway width is more than 4
lanes

Width of island, minimum 1.50 m

Pedestrian • Depends upon pedestrian volume and space available

Refuge Island
Vertical kerbs are provided along the island

Proper illumination need to be provided

132
Pedestrian Refuge

[Link]

133
Island Design - Considerations
• Island design variations should be studied to finalize the most suiting to the traffic
movements and which ensures safe steering of the vehicle.
• Multiple islands should be avoided. Few large islands shall be preferred.
• Kerbed islands should be provided on all important roads and important
intersections on two-lane roads.
• High kerbs with angle iron frames shall not be used.
• In case of divisional islands, the approach width shall allow the smooth
movement of traffic
• Drainage should be planned
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Island Design - Considerations

IRC SP 041
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Island Design - Considerations
• Three forms –
• Raised island outlined by kerbs
• Island delineated by pavement markings / raised rumble strips
• Non-paved areas formed by the pavement edge, supplemented by delineators etc.

• Progressive improvement is necessary to satisfy traffic volume demand

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Design Considerations

IRC SP 041

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Island Design - Considerations
• To permit easy right turning of large vehicles, following should be done:
• The gap in central reserve of the junction should be extended to at least 3 m beyond the
assumed extension of kerbed line of minor road
• The shape should be determined based on 12 to 15 m radius of arc tangential to centre line
of minor road and the major road
• The ends of the central island should be bullet nosed

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Island Design – Considerations

IRC SP 041- 1994

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Island Design – Considerations

IRC SP 041- 1994

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Island Design

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Island Design

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Warrants for Signalized Intersections
• Minimum vehicular volume
• Interruption of continuous traffic
• Minimum pedestrian volume
• Crashes
• Combinations of the above conditions

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 Warrants for Signalized Intersections

Minimum vehicular volume:

• Major road 650 to 800 veh/h (both directions), and minor road 200 – 250
veh/h in one direction
• Reduce values by 70%, if 85th Percentile speed on major road > 50 km/h OR
intersection passes through built-up area of isolated community having
population < 2.5 Lac

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 Warrants for Signalized Intersections

Interruption of continuous traffic:

• Major road 1000 to 1200 veh/h (both directions), and minor road 100 – 150
veh/h in one direction
• Reduce values by 70%, if 85th Percentile speed on major road > 60 km/h OR
intersection passes through built-up area of isolated community having
population < 2.5 Lac

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Warrants for Signalized Intersections
• Minimum pedestrian volume:
• From major road 600 veh/h (both directions) or more enter intersection, OR with raised
median of size 1.5 m 1000 veh/h (both direction) enters the intersection, and 150 or more
pedestrian enter from highest volume cross walk
• Reduce values by 70%, if 85th Percentile speed on major road > 60 km/h OR intersection
passes through built-up area of isolated community having population < 2.5 Lac

• Crashes:
• 5 or more within a period of 12 months, each causing personal injury or property damage of
Rs 2000 or more

• Combination: If two or more warrants get satisfied 80% or more

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Interchanges [Link]

Types, Designs and Warrants

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Types of Interchanges
• Trumpet
• Diamond
• Clover Leaf
• Roundabout
• Directional
• Other designs

IRC: 92-1985

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Directional Nomenclature

IRC: 92-1985

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Trumpet Interchange
• Simplest 3-leg interchange
• Out of the two right turns, one is negotiated by a loop and other by a semi-direct
connection
• Diagonal ramps are provided for left turning movements
• Ramps catering to heavy traffic volume shall preferably be provided with direct
connection

[Link] [Link]

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Diamond Interchange
• Simplest 4-leg interchange IRC: 92-1985

• Ramp terminals on minor highways are at-grade providing for right and left turn
movements
• Ramps meeting major road and with one-way traffic movement are either curved or
parallel to the major highway
• Vehicle desiring to take right turn must come to ramp terminal and do stop-start phase
• Requires less space and is less costly
• Mostly used on major-minor highway connection
• Has limited capacity due to at-grade terminal on a minor road
• It can be improved by creating split diamond or 3-level diamond (costly)
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 [Link]

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Clover Leaf Interchange
• Consists of one-loop ramp for right turning traffic and one outer connection for
left turning traffic in each quadrant
• Vehicles desiring to take right turn are required to turn left through about 270
degrees before attaining the desired direction
• Allows continuous movement to interchanging traffic
• Design of weaving section between successive entry and exit is critical. This may
affect capacity if not designed properly.
• Suitable for major-major connection in rural areas
• Land requirement is high and hence not suitable for urban areas
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Clover Leaf Interchange

[Link]

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Rotary Interchange
• Usually 4-leg interchange
• Useful when several roads intersect at the interchange and there is sufficient land
available
• It requires construction of two-bridges
• Main highway may go above or below the rotary intersection
• Turning movements are through diagonal ramps
• Operates satisfactorily at low speeds
• Causes little additional travel distance for interchanging traffic

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 [Link]

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 [Link]

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 Directional Interchange
• Ramps for right turning traffic which
follow the natural direction of
movement
• Requires more than one structure or a
3-level structure
• Operationally more efficient
• Very expansive
[Link]

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Directional Interchange

IRC:92-2017

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Other Designs

[Link]

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Other Designs

[Link]

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Other Designs
• 3-arm partially grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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Other Designs
• 3-arm partially grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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Other Designs
• 4-arm partially grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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Other Designs
• 4-arm partially grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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Other Designs
• 3-arm grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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Other Designs
• 4-arm grade separated

IRC: 92-1985

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 Warrants for Interchanges
If total traffic on all arms Complete access control Major crossings on
is in excess of 10,000 standard is to be highway to be developed
PCU/h implemented to expressway standard

High rate of crashes

Crossing of major arterials resulting in fatalities
Topography warrants
of similar category having despite control and
interchange
heavy traffic improvement measures
taken at-grade

168
Feasible Conditions for Interchange

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Feasible Conditions for Interchange

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Land Required for Interchanges
S. No. Category Approximate land required
in m2
1 Trumpet 44,000
2 Diamond 28,000
3 Full cloverleaf 73,000
4 Bridged rotary 1,80,000

171
Geometric Features
• Design Speed
• Highways – 80 km/h and 100 km/h
• Urban expressway – 80 km/h
• Ramp on multi-lane highways: Not less than 40 km/h
• Speed differential shall not be more than 10 km/h at a time
• Ramps
• Shall have two lanes
• Each entry / exit ramp shall have acceleration / deceleration lane respectively
• Length is decided based on speed differential between project speed and speed permitted on
ramp

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Geometric Features
Configuration Type of Ramp Range of expressway design speed (km/h)

100 - 120 80 – 100

Range of Ramp Design Speeds
System interchange Semi-direct 50 – 70 40 – 60
Loop 70 – 90 60 – 80
Direct 80 – 100 70 – 80
Service interchange Semi-direct 40 – 60 40 – 60
Loop 60 – 80 60 – 70
Direct 60 – 80 60 – 80

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Geometric Features

IRC: 92-1985

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Geometric Features
• Sight Distance – elevation of exit taper

‘X’ is calculated as a travel distance in minimum 10s time IRC: 92-2017

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Geometric Features
• Sight Distance – plan of exit taper

‘X’ is calculated as a travel distance in minimum 10s time

IRC: 92-2017

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Geometric Features
• Sight Distance – plan of auxiliary lane

‘X’ is calculated as a travel distance in minimum 7s time

IRC: 92-2017

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Geometric Features
• Sight Distance – plan of auxiliary lane with constrained sight distance

IRC: 92-2017

‘X’ is calculated as a travel distance in minimum 7s time

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Geometric Features
• Gradient
• Tangent grades: preferably flat, limited to 4%, not exceeding 6%
• On ramps: desirable 6%, not more than 7%
• On high speed facilities, flyovers, access control facilities: 2.5% - 3.5%

• Ramp profile – valley curve at lower end and summit curve at upper end
• Minimum widths
• Median 1.20 m
• Shoulder 2.0 m (at least 1.0m shall be paved)

• Number of lanes: as per capacity per lane and traffic volume

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Geometric Features
• Superelevation rate on ramps – Maximum 7%, desirable maximum 6%

IRC: 92-2017

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Geometric Features
• Desirable and minimum length including taper
• Acceleration lane 250 / 180 m
• Deceleration lane 120 / 90 m
• Lateral clearance
• Underpass – roadway with normal shoulder
• Overpass – kerb 225mm wide with open-type parapet
• Vertical clearance
• Underpass – minimum 5.5 m in urban areas, as per user on rural highways
• Spacing of interchange
• Urban areas – not less than 1.6km
• Rural or undeveloped areas – not less than 4.8km

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Geometric Features
• Access Control
• Required to ensure safety and efficiency of a category of a road
• Access points are determined based on –
• Functional classification of a road
• Characteristics of traffic
• Current and future land use
• Environment and aesthetics
• Highway design and operation
• Economic considerations

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Typical Design Challenges
• Sight distance at an exit point
• Distance between painted gore nose to paved gore (area where ramp diverges)

• Exit speed change

• By use of a deceleration lane

• Merges
• Rear-end crash can be averted by use of an acceleration lane

• Right side entrance and exits

• Avoid, contrary to flow expectations

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Typical Design Challenges
• Fixed object hazard (signs, piers, rails etc.)
• Wrong way entrances
• Through design, maintaining spacing between entrances and exits, staggering ramp terminals
and controlling access to ramps

• Excessive speed on minor roadway

• While exiting or entering main highway
• Controlled through ramp design and merge design

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Ramp Terminals
• This is a portion adjacent to the through travelled way which includes speed
change lanes, tapers and islands
• They shall be designed as a free flow type
• These can be of two types
• Entrance terminal – ramp traffic merges with high speed through traffic on a highway
• Exit terminal – ramp traffic diverges from high speed through traffic on a highway

• Such connectivity shall be provided at flat angles for smooth flow

• Based on the type, acceleration lane and deceleration lane shall be provided

185
Ramp Terminals
• Speed change lanes shall be visible to the approaching traffic moving on a
horizontal curve or vertical curve
• Entrance terminal
• Shall have length sufficient for a vehicle to take a turn on ramp with ramp speed and increase
the speed to that of the operation speed on the highway
• There shall be sufficient manoeuvrable space so that entering driver has a view of the traffic
in adjacent lane and can move laterally to the main lane of the highway as soon as the
opening appears
• No kerb shall be provided within the length of the acceleration lane

186
Ramp Terminals
• Entrance terminal
• Acceleration lanes can be designed as –
• Direct taper type
• Parallel type
• Direct taper type provides direct entry at flat angles. It is preferred by the vehicles. It requires
more space at the turning curve
• Parallel type provides additional lane for the merging traffic and provides opportunity to both
the drivers in adjacent lanes to visualize the relative speeds before merging. This is also
satisfactory and safer.

187
Ramp Terminals
• Exit terminal
• Length of the exit terminal shall be long enough to allow the vehicle to reduce the speed (at
highway) to the ramp speed before negotiating the turning curve on the ramp
• This requires deceleration lane. It can be designed as –
• Direct taper type
• Parallel type
• The nose separating the through lane from the turning lane shall be off-set from the edge of
the through lane by 2 m. This allows the errant vehicle which has wrongly moved in turning
lane to return back to the through lane with minimum disruption to through traffic

188
Ramp Terminals
• Exit terminal
• The core area formed by the edges of the through lane and turning lane immediately after
the point of divergence shall be kept clear of obstructions so as to allow recovery to the out
of control vehicle

189
 Ramp Terminals
• At location marked ‘A’ funnel
entrance is provided by reducing
width of ramp W2 to width of
lane W1
• The nose area marked ‘B’ should
be paved and provided with
markings in white paint as
shown
• At location marked Ç’ the
through lane should be tapered
(1 in 10) for a distance of 20 m
IRC: 92-1985

190
 Acceleration length
Acceleration length for flat
conditions – desirable 250 m
and minimum 180 m.
It is affected by gradient.

IRC:SP:99-2013

For parallel type the taper rate shall be 8:1 for speeds upto 50
km/h and 15:1 for design speed of 80 km/h

191
 Deceleration Length
Deceleration length for flat
conditions – desirable 120 m
and minimum 90 m.
It is affected by gradient.

IRC:SP:99-2013
For parallel type the taper rate shall be 8:1 for speeds upto 50
km/h and 15:1 for design speed of 80 km/h

192
Weaving Section
• Weaving movement
• Movement of vehicles in same direction within two or more streams and intersecting path of
vehicles in other stream at small angles to cross gradually to the other stream of low

• Weaving section
• The location where such movement takes place
• Merging and diverging action takes place in this section

• Maximum length over which merging and diverging movements are defined is
450 m

193
Weaving Section
• The influence area of the weaving section is defined by the traffic density
• Density is considered as the average of all vehicles across all the lanes of the
segment between the entry and exit points of the segment
• Influence area is reflected by the density of right and next to right lane, and by
the acceleration and deceleration lanes 450 m upstream of diverge lane or
downstream of the merge lane

194
Weaving Section

IRC: 92-2017

195
Weaving Section

IRC: 92-2017

196
Ramp Metering
• Traffic signals which are placed on ramps are called ramp meters
• This helps in improving the merge operation on the highway. It controls the traffic
flow entering the main highway.
• Control helps in maintain the traffic flow downstream within capacity, thus
reducing congestion
• Depending upon the number of lanes and usage of high occupancy vehicle lanes,
the ramp meters can be classified as -
• Ramp for single occupancy vehicle (SOV) – Single-lane ramp meter is provided if peak hour
design volume is ≤ 720 veh/h and/or provision of High Occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane is not
feasible.

197
Ramp Metering
• The ramp meters can be classified as -
• Ramp for SOV / HOV – Dual-lane ramp meter is provided if peak hour design volume is up to
720 veh/h. Add another HOV lane if proportion of HOV ≥ 9% of total peak hour volume
• Ramp for 2 SOV – Dual-lane ramp meter is provided if peak hour design volume is > 720
veh/h (moderate to high)

198
Lane Balancing
• For efficient traffic operation through and beyond the interchange, a balance in
the number of lanes on the main highway and ramps is needed
• Number of lanes can be ascertained using design traffic volume and the traffic
handling capacity of a lane
• This gives basic number of lanes on a highway and minimum number of lanes on a ramp
• These should be maintained throughout the length of the highway and shall not be kept
changing between pair of interchanges (this ensures continuity)

199
Lane Balancing
• Guiding Principle:
• Entrance
• Number of lanes beyond merging of two traffic streams = Not less than the SUM of all traffic
lanes on the merging roadway MINUS one
• Maximum is SUM of all traffic lanes on the merging roadway
• Exit
• Number of diverging lanes on main carriageway = SUM (number of lanes on main
carriageway after exit PLUS number of lanes on the exit ramp) MINUS one lane
• Exceptions are for cloverleaf loop-ramp exits which follows a loop-ramp entrance; and at
exits between closely spaced interchanges.
• In these cases, auxiliary lane may be dropped in a single lane exit, and number of lanes on
the approach roadway = number of through lanes beyond the exit PLUS the lane on the exit

200
Lane Balancing
• Guiding Principle:
• Travel way on the main
carriageway should not be
reduced by more than one lane
at a time.

IRC: 92-2017

201
Effectiveness of an Interchange
• It shall be judged on account of –
• Accessibility
• Mobility
• Quality of service
• Reliability
• Safety

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Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

203
Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

204
Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

205
Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

206
Suggestive Layouts for Ramps
Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

207
 Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

208
 Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

209
 Suggestive Layouts for Ramps

Manual of Specification and Standards: Four-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership; [Link]

210
Issues and Remedies

211
Issues and Remedies

212
Safer Design

[Link]

[Link]

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