INDIAN SCHOOL MULADHA

Academic Year 2024 – 2025 Notes: 14

Class: XII PHYSICS Chapter: 14
Date: 29/10/24 SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductors
Materials possessing resistivity intermediate to metals and insulators. They are like insulators at low
temperature but like conductors at high temperature

Bands
The highest energy band filled with valence electrons is called valence band.
Energy band above the valence band is called conduction band.
The energy gap between top of valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called energy band
gap or energy gap. (𝐸𝑔 )

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Either there is small energy gap betweenAt 0o the conduction band is empty The valence band is completely fill
the completely filled valence band andandthe the valence band is filled. Sowhile
the the conduction band is empt
partially filled conduction band or semiconductor
the is essentially insulator
There is a large energy gap betwe
conduction and valence bands partly at low temperatures. them. Even an electric field cannot gi
overlap. By applying a small amountHowever,
of the energy gap between this much energy to an electron to ma
electrical or thermal energy, electrons conduction
can and valence bandsit jump is from the valence band into t
be made to shift from valance bandsmall. to So at room temperature some conduction band. Hence due to the la
conduction band and hence they become valence electrons acquire enough of free electrons in the conductio
good conductors of electricity / heat. thermal energy and jump to band, the the insulators are poor conducto
conduction band where they are of freeelectricity.
to conduct electricity. Thus the
semiconductor acquires a small
conductivity at room temperature.

The vacancy or absence of an electron in the covalent bond of a crystal is called a hole
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductors

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 249

 At T = 0K the valence band of a semiconductor is filled with electrons (all covalent bonds are
completely filled) and the conduction band is empty. Thus an intrinsic semiconductor behaves like
an insulator at T= 0 K.
When temperatures increases (T > 0 K) some electrons of the valence band gain sufficient thermal
energy (breaking the covalent bonds) and jump to the conduction band, creating an equal number of
holes in the valence band. Hence an intrinsic semiconductor behaves like a conductor at T > 0 K
Therefore, the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to
the number of holes in valence band which is known as intrinsic
charge carrier concentration
ne = nh = ni
Thus to increase the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor we
have to raise its temperature. But if temperature increases beyond
a limit, semiconductor will be destroyed. So we have to adopt
another method to enhance the conductivity of the semiconductor
other than increasing the temperature. This new method is called
doping

Doping
Intrinsic semiconductors have low intrinsic charge carrier concentration (of hole and electrons) so
they have low electrical conductivity.
The process of adding a desirable impurity (pentavalent or trivalent atom) to an intrinsic
semiconductor so as to increase its conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms added are called
dopants and the semiconductors doped with the impurity atoms are called extrinsic or doped
semiconductors.
There are two types of dopants used for doping the tetravalent Si or Ge
1. Pentavalent dopants (5 valence electrons) [Donor atoms]
For example, Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and Phosphorus (P)
2. Trivalent dopants (3 valence electrons) [acceptor atoms]
For example, Indium (In), Boron (B) and Aluminium (Al).
n -type semiconductor
It is obtained by doping the tetravalent semiconductor with pentavalent impurities such as As, P or
Sb.
When a pentavalent impurity atom substitutes the tetravalent Si atom, it uses four of its five valence
electrons in forming four covalent bonds with neighbouring Si atoms while the fifth electron is loosely
bound to the impurity atom.
Since each pentavalent impurity atom donates one extra electron for conduction, it is known as donor.
The energy level of this electron is known as donor energy level
As the fifth electron is loosely bound to the nucleus of the impurity atom, only small amount of
thermal energy is required to make the donor electron to move to the conduction band, thus the energy
level of the donor electron is just below the conduction band.
In n-type of semiconductors, free electrons are generated by doping as well as thermal process while
the holes are generated only by thermal process. Hence, the electrons are the majority charge carriers
and holes are the minority charge carriers.
As most of the current is carried by the negatively charged electrons, this semiconductor is known as
n-type semiconductor
ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 250
 ne > nh

P-type semiconductor

It is obtained by doping the tetravalent semiconductor Si with trivalent impurities such as Al, Ga or
In.
The impurity atom uses its three valence electrons for forming covalent bonds with three
neighbouring Si atoms. But covalent bond with the fourth Si atom is incomplete due to the deficiency
of an electron. (Hole is forming)
During doping trivalent impurity with tetravalent semiconductor holes are formed in the covalent
bonds of the semiconductor, electrons from the neighbouring covalent bond can reach (accept) into
this hole. Thus the trivalent impurity atom is called an acceptor.
As very small energy is required for the highly energetic electron of the valence band to move into
this hole in the accepter level, the acceptor energy level lies slightly above the valence band.
In P-type of semiconductors, free holes are generated by doping as well as thermal process while the
electrons are generated only by thermal process. Hence, the holes are the majority charge carriers and
electrons are the minority charge carriers.
As most of the current is carried by the positively charge holes, this semiconductor is known as p-
type semiconductors.
ne < nh
Conduction in Extrinsic semiconductors - Under the action of an applied electric field electrons
will shift from negative terminal to positive terminal through the valence bands. So the holes appear
to move in the opposite direction. Thus the holes move in the direction of the electric field. So they
act as positive charge carriers and give rise to a hole current Ih. The thermally generated free electrons
give rise to an independent electron current Ie

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 251

Total current I = Electron current + hole current = Ie + Ih

P-n junction [Formation of Depletion Layer]

PN junction - If one part of an intrinsic semiconductor crystal be made n-type and the other part p-
type then that crystal is called a p-n Junction. To construct a p-n junction diode, a single intrinsic
semiconductors crystal is doped with trivalent impurity in one half and pentavalent impurity in
another half.

Diffusion-In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is much greater as compared to

concentration of holes; while in p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is much greater
than the concentration of electrons. When a p-n junction is formed, then due to the concentration
difference, the holes diffuse from p side to n side and electrons diffuse from n side to p-side and gets
neutralised. This flow of majority carriers due to the concentration difference is called diffusion
current.
Due to the neutralisation of charges after diffusion, positively charged ions form in n-region and
negatively charged ions form in p-region near the junction, sets up a potential difference across the
junction and hence an internal electric field, which opposes further diffusion of electrons and holes.

Potential barrier: The accumulation of negative charges in the p-region and positive charges in the
n-region sets up a potential difference across the junction. This acts as a barrier at the junction for the
further diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction. The potential across the barrier due to the
fixed ions, is called barrier potential.

Depletion layer (region): The layers on either side of the junction is free from mobile charge carriers
(electrons & holes) but contains fixed (positive and negative) ions, is called depletion layer.

Drift: Due to the presence of electric field from n-region to p-region, electrons on p-side move to n-
side and holes on n-side move to p-side. The flow of minority carriers due to the presence of electric
field is called drift current.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the
potential barrier increases, thus increasing the electric field strength which decreases diffusion
current, but increases the drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the
drift current. Since drift current is in opposite direction of diffusion current, when both of them
becomes equal, net current is zero in p-n junction.

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 252

p-n junction diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals which allows current to flow only
in one direction

V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode

Forward biasing

An external voltage is applied across the diode such that p-side is connected to the positive terminal
(higher potential) of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal (lower potential) of the battery
Since the direction of applied voltage is in the opposite direction of barrier potential, the width of the
depletion layer decreases. Hence a small number of holes in the p - side move towards n-side and
electrons in the n-side move towards the p-side which constitute a very small current [majority charge
carriers flowing towards minority zone]. If we increase the applied bias voltage significantly, the
width of depletion layer will be reduced again and a greater number of majority charges pass, thus
the current increases.
During forward biasing the majority charge carrier flows to the minority zone, and hence number of
minority carriers in minority zone increases (minority carrier injection).
In forward bias the current due to holes and due to the electrons are in the same direction, so the total
forward current is the sum of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to electron flow.
The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
I = Ie + I h
In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly almost negligibly, till threshold or cut-in
voltage or knee voltage. After this voltage forward, current increases significantly even for a very
small increase in the bias voltage

Reverse Biasing

An external voltage is applied across the diode such that p-side is connected to the negative terminal
(lower potential) of the battery and n-side to the positive terminal (higher potential) of the battery.

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 253

Since the direction of applied voltage is same to the direction of barrier potential, the width of the
depletion layer increases. As a result, the barrier potential increases. Thus there is no majority charge
flow.
But due to the increase in electric field, electrons on p -side moves to the n-side and holes on n-side
moves to p-side [minority charge carriers swept to its majority zone].
Since the drift current is due to the flow of minority charge carriers the order of the drift current is
few μA.
Initially the reverse bias voltage produces a very small current, about a few microamperes which
almost remains constant and does not depend on the applied voltage. This small and constant current
is called reverse saturation current.
When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse current
suddenly increases due to the breakdown of large number of covalent bonds (This is known as
avalanche break down). The voltage at which breakdown of the junction diode occurs is called Zener
breakdown voltage or peak-inverse voltage of the diode

Rectifier
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification and the device
used for this process is called rectifier. p- n junction diode can act as a rectifier.
Principle - When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, it offers less resistance and a current flow
through it; but when it is reverse biased, it offers high resistance and almost no current flows through
it.
Thus diode conducts in forward bias and does not conduct in reverse bias This unidirectional property
of a diode enables it to be used as a rectifier.

Half-wave rectifier

Diode allows current to pass through it only when it is forward biased.

During positive half cycle, end A becomes positive and B becomes negative. Now diode is in forward
bias and conducts electricity

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 254

During negative half cycle, end A becomes negative and B becomes positive. Now diode is in the
reverse bias and does not conduct electricity.
Since a diode rectifies only a half cycle of an input a.c, it is known as half wave rectifier

Full wave rectifier

During positive half cycle, end A becomes positive and B becomes negative. Now diode D1 is in the
forward bias and it conducts electricity. But diode D2 is in reverse bias and does not conduct
electricity.
During negative half cycle, end A becomes negative and B becomes positive. Now diode D2 is in the
forward bias and it conducts electricity but diode D1 is in reverse bias and does not conduct electricity.
Since two diodes rectifies full cycle of an input a.c, it is known as full wave rectifier
The current flow in external resistance is same in both half cycles

Filter circuits. The output obtained from a junction diode rectifier is unidirectional but pulsating.
Such a signal can be considered as the sum of a d.c. signal superimposed with many a.c signals. We
can obtain d.c. voltage by filtering out the a.c. components by using simplest filter circuits.

1. Series inductor filter.

Since the inductor offers high reactance to the flow of a.c but low resistance to the flow of d.c, d.c
flows through the load resistance.
2. Parallel Capacitor filter.
Since the capacitor offers high reactance to the flow of d.c but low resistance to the flow of a.c, a.c
flows through the capacitor and the remaining d.c flows through the load resistance.

ISML/2025-2026/Notes/Phy/XII/Current Electricity Page 255