GENETIC CODE AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
What is genetic code?
“A set of rules by which a linear sequence of nucleotides specifies
the linear sequence of polypeptides- termed as genetic code”
Specifies how a nucleotide
Ribosomes link amino acids
sequence of mRNA is Translation process is
in a specific order specified
translated into protein accomplished by ribosomes.
by mRNA using tRNA.
sequence.
INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC CODE
❑Code is almost similar in all organisms(99%)
❑DNA and RNA contains a sequences of nucleotide
bases
Four set of bases are:
i. Adenine
ii. Guanine
iii. Cytosine
iv. thymine?/uracil
Principles of genetic
code
Genetic code comprises of two main
principles:
❑ It consist of 64 different codons, each of
which codes for 1 of the 20 amino acids
❑ A codon consist of a triplet of nucleotide
bases(3 adjacent nucleotide bases
constitute a codon)
GENERAL TABLE OF
HEREDITARY CODE
• Total 64 codons are
present.
• Out of 64, 3 are stop
codons or terminal codons
▪ UAA(opal)
▪ UAG(amber)
▪ UGA(opal, ochre)
• 61 codons encode amino
acids
• Out of 61, 1 codon is also a
start codon (AUG)
Characteristics of genetic code
Following are unique characteristics of genetic code:
❑ code is triplet
❑Code is non - overlapping
❑Code is comma less
❑Code is non – ambiguous
❑code has polarity
❑ code is degenerate
❑ some codes act as start codons
❑ some codes act as stop codons
❑Code is universal
CODE IS TRIPLET
❑Nucleotide sequence of mRNA is arranged as a
linear sequence of codons
❑Each codon comprise three nitrogenous bases
❑Concept of triplet codon has been supported
by two types of mutations:
i. Frameshift mutations
ii. base substitutions
FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS
❑evidently, genetic message once initiated at a fixed
point is read in a definite series of three letter
words
❑Framework would be disturbed due to deletion,
addition of one or more bases
❑When frameshift mutations occur, then in certain
combinations they produce wild type normal gene
❑It was concluded that:
▪ One was deletion
▪ Other was addition
❑Disturbed order of frame due to mutation will be
restored by other
BASE
SUBSTITUTIONS(REPLACEMENTR)
❑Sometimes in mRNA , at a particular point, one base is replaced by another.
❑No deletion or addition occurs
❑Due to replacement, meaning of one codon changed.
❑As a result, another amino acid would be incorporated(INCLUDE)
For example:
Due to substitution mutation in gene for tryptophan synthetase enzyme in [Link], GGA codon
that codes for glycine become missense codon AGA. AGA codes arginine.
Code is non overlapping
❑There is no over lapping in genetic
code
❑Codes do not overlap
❑They are read sequentially
(INORDER)
❑It means that, a base in mRNA is not
used for different codons
CODE IS COMMA LESS
❑Genetic code is comma less
❑No codon is reserves for punctuation
❑If one amino acid is coded, the second amino
acid will be automatically coded by next three
letters
❑Means no letters are wasted as the
punctuation marks
CODE IS NON AMBIGUOUS
❑genetic code is unambiguous(NOT OPEN TO MORE THAN ONE) and
specific.
❑One codon codes only one amino acid
❑Multiple codons can code same amino acid but one codon cannot
code different amino acids- that is the unambiguity of genetic code.
❑Exceptions:
▪ AUG and GUG both may code for methionine as initiating codon,
although GUG is meant for valine
▪ Similarly, GGA codon codes for two amino acids “glycine and
glutamic acid”
CODON HAS POLARITY(FIXED
DIRECTION)
❑There is polarity in genetic code
❑Code id always read in fixed direction
❑5’-3’ direction
❑If code is read from opposite direction(5’-3’), it would specify different amino acid
❑Since, codon would have reversed base sequences
❑Examples given below:
CODE HAS DEGENERACY
• Genetic code is degenerate
❑Degeneracy means that more than one codons can code for same
amino acid
❑Example:
▪ Except methionine and tryptophan which have single codon, all
other 18 amino acids have more than one codons.
▪ Same amino acid may be code by two, three four five and six
different codons
NUMBER TO CODONS TO ENCODE
PARTICULAR AMINO ACIDS
❑Nine amino acids( Phe, Tyr, His, Gln, Asp, Lys, Glu, Cys, Asn)- have two codons each
❑Isoleucine has three codons
❑Five amino acids(valine, proline, threonine, alanine and glycine)-have four codons each
❑Three amino acids(leucine, arginine, serine)have six codons each.
TYPES OF DEGENERACY
• Degeneracy is basically of two types:
partial
DEGENRACY
COMPLETE
DEGENRACY
PARTIAL DEGENRACY AND
COMPLETE DEGENERACY
❑Partial degeneracy occurs when first two nucleotides are identical but the third nucleotide
base of degenerate codon differs.
❑Example:
CUU, and CUC code for leucine.
❑Complete degeneracy occurs when any of four bases can take third position and still code
for same amino acid .
❑Example:
UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG codes for serine
SPECIAL CODONS OF GENETIC
CODE
• Genetic code has two types of special codons:
Start codons
Stop
codons
START CODONS
From 61 codons that take part in coding,
1 is start codon.
❑AUG, termed as start codon in most
organisms.
❑Also called as “chain initiation codon”
❑Encodes methionine amino acid in
eukaryotes and formyl methionine in
prokaryotes.
❑In rare cases, GUG also serve as start
codon, when AUG lost by deletion.
❑Normally, GUG codes for valine
STOP CODONS
From 64 codons, three are termed as stop codons:
▪ UAA(opal)
▪ UAG(amber)
▪ UGA(opal, ochre)
❑These 3 also called “chain termination codons”
❑Do not code any amino acid, that’s why called
“noncoding” or “nonsense codons”
SENSE CODONS
❑From 64 codons, 61 are sense codons
❑Called so because they encode a particular amino acid
❑All except colored are sense codons
Code is universal
❑Code is considered as universal
❑Same code is found valid for all organisms ranging from man to bacteria
❑Universality was demonstrated by Marshall, Caskey and Nirenberg(1976)
❑He observed &found that bacterium, amphibian and mammal use almost same code.
❑Only little differences found
❑Universality- strongest evidence that all living things share common evolutionary
heritage
EXAMPLES/ EVIDENCES FOR
UNIVERSALITY OF GENETIC CODE
❑Lac+ gene produce enzyme P- galactosidase in [Link]
❑In humans, this same gene performs the same function in fibroblast tissue culture cells.
❑When hemoglobin mRNA molecule is injected into Xenopus eggs, protein synthesis occurs
and alpha, beta polypeptide chains are produced.
❑Variations has only been observed in mitochondria where some codons are translated
differently
CAUSE OF DEGENRRACY OF
CODON(WOBBLE HYPOTHESIS)
❑in 1966, Francis Crick proposed “the wobble
hypothesis”
❑It states that:
❑“Only two first bases of codons have a precise
pairing with the bases of anticodon of tRNA
while pairing between third bases of codon and
anticodon may wobble”
❑Wobble means to move unsteadily.
❑This phenomena permits a single tRNA to
recognize more than one codon
Wobble base pairs
❑Wobble base pair is a pairing
between two nucleotides in
RNA molecule that does not
follow the Watson-Crick base
pair rules.
❑Four main wobble base pairs
are:
i. Guanine-uracil(G-U)
ii. Hypoxanthine-uracil(I-U)
iii. Hypoxanthine-adenine(I-A)
iv. Hypoxanthine-cytosine(I-C)
WOBBLE BASE PAIR
❑To maintain consistency of
nucleic acid nomenclature, “ I ”
is used for hypoxanthine is the
nucleobase of inosine(a
chemical that is found in RNA)
❑Inosine displays true qualities
of wobble.
Our body have a limited amount of tRNAs and
wobble allows for broad specificity.
Wobble base pairs-facilitate many biological
functions, clearly proven in [Link].
SIGNIFICANCE Thermodynamic stability of a wobble base pair
OF WOBBLE is comparable to Watson-Crick base pair
HYPOTHESIS
Wobbling base pairs allows faster disassociation
of tRNA from mRNA and protein synthesis
Wobble existence minimize the damage-
caused by misreading