Chap 1

CHAPTER I - THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

GE - ETHICS 1st Semester | A.Y 2025 - 2026

THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF SCIENCE AND formations, and the composition of

TECHNOLOGY substances, etc.
➔​ early social thinkers used natural science
SOCIETY AND CULTURE methods to understand the social world
➔​ an autonomous group of people interacting ➔​ science has been instrumental in developing
with others in a distinct geographic territory technologies
and sharing a common culture
➔​ the ways of thinking, materials/objects, and TECHNOLOGY AS A COMPONENT OF CULTURE
ways of acting together form the people’s ➔​ various processes used by groups to harness
way of life the environment to produce objects and
➔​ cultures are diverse and vary across places systems for human needs
in how children are nurtured, how people ➔​ artifacts or material culture are objects
marry, and what people believe in produced by technology
➔​ examples include stone tool technology, use
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CULTURAL of plants for healing by indigenous peoples,
DIVERSITY irrigation systems
➔​ Physical Environment - how people ➔​ from a sociological and anthropological
manage to use their immediate environment sense, technology is part of culture based on
to respond to needs existing knowledge systems (science) from
➔​ Technology - the processes of harnessing the past to the present
resources to respond to society’s needs
➔​ Science - the knowledge utilized to harness LINKING SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND
resources SOCIETY
➔​ three sociological perspectives analyze
ASPECTS OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE society and culture: Symbolic Interactionism,
➔​ Material - objects produced as a result of Structural Functionalism, and Conflict
technology Analysis
➔​ Non-Material - how objects were produced
and the processes and functions involved SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
➔​ society is made up of individuals who
SCIENCE IN SOCIETY interact using symbols with meanings
➔​ the body of knowledge used to understand ➔​ social problems arise from differing
the world understandings of symbols and their
➔​ includes natural science (biology, physics, meanings
chemistry, geology, meteorology, etc.) and
social science (sociology, anthropology, STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
history, political science, psychology, ➔​ society is made up of interrelated
economics) systems/institutions with functions
➔​ understanding natural phenomena, ➔​ social problems arise from dysfunction in
including plants, animals, geological one system affecting others
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 ➔​ e.g. a crisis in the economy affects political EXERCISE: Identify the perspective (Technological
institutions, education, etc. Determinism (TD) or Social Construction of
Technology (SCOT)) in the following statements:
CONFLICT ANALYSIS
➔​ society is made up of conflicting groups with 1.​ Use of the Internet evolving from military to
unequal power, wealth, and prestige personal and commercial uses shows varied
➔​ social problems arise from the exploitation use based on need. (SCOT)
of inferior groups by dominant ones 2.​ Discovery of the Americas attributed to
advances in shipbuilding technology. (TD)
SPECIFIC VIEWS ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, 3.​ Invention of the stirrup enabled the
AND SOCIETY development of feudal societies by allowing
➔​ Technological Somnambulism (Langdon armored knights on horseback. (TD)
Winner) denies that technology provides 4.​ Automobile invention led to suburban
structure and meaning for human life, development and government intervention
portraying humans as makers and users of with roads and laws. (TD)
technology. 5.​ Male contraceptive pills' limited use despite
➔​ Technological Determinism (Thorstein feasibility due to social norms limiting
Veblen) views technology as the main contraceptive responsibility to women.
determinant of society’s history and culture. (SCOT)
➔​ Social Construction of Technology (Wiebe
Bijker and Trevor Pinch, 1984) emphasizes
social context in technology development as
a product of social processes involving social
groups. It argues that technological
innovation involves negotiation between
technology and society, resistance, and the
construction of social and technological
frameworks, actions, and practices.

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Chap 2
CHAPTER II - SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
GE - ETHICS 1st Semester | A.Y 2025 - 2026

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EVERYDAY

LIFE ●​ Hydrosphere
○​ aquatic parts such as oceans, rivers,
RECYCLING lakes; necessary for life
➔​ collecting and processing waste materials ●​ Lithosphere
into new products ○​ terrestrial part (land masses,
➔​ Benefits: continents, islands)
●​ reduces landfill waste ○​ supports life
●​ conserves natural resources ○​ soil provides minerals and organic
●​ prevents pollution by reducing the need for material
new raw materials ○​ land shelters animals and plants
●​ saves energy
ECOSYSTEMS AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY ●​ Ecosystem - interacting system of biotic
➔​ human societies exist in specific (plants, animals, microorganisms) and
environmental contexts (the natural world) abiotic components (wind, ocean currents,
➔​ key concepts include food quality, simple temperature, rainfall)
machines (lever, wheel and axle, pulley, ●​ Biological organization levels: biosphere,
inclined plane, wedge, screw) ecosystem, community, population,
➔​ Objectives: organism, body system, organ, tissue, cell,
1.​ Discuss relationships between the physical molecules, atoms.
environment and human societies, ●​ Ecosystem services (benefits to humans):
2.​ Explain the relevance of science and ●​ Provisioning - food, fuel, fiber,
technology in daily life through various genetic resources, nutrients, fresh
objects (food, machines, communication), water
and ●​ Cultural - spiritual values, knowledge
3.​ Describe basic uses and functions of science systems, education, recreation,
and technology aesthetics
●​ Supporting - primary production,
ESSENTIALS OF PLANET EARTH habitat provision, nutrient cycling,
soil formation, oxygen production,
Biosphere - parts of Earth where life is found, water cycling
composing of: ●​ Regulating - invasion resistance,
●​ Atmosphere pollination, climate regulation,
○​ air surrounding the planet, oxygen disease regulation, natural hazard
and CO2 are essential for respiration protection, water purification, pest
○​ shapes weather patterns regulation, erosion control
○​ contains life up to about 2000
meters altitude

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TECHNOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
2.1 ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY
➔​ example: Velcro invented by Georges de
Mestrel in 1941 inspired by natural
hook-and-loop plant structures. ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY
➔​ other services: ➔​ 40% of the world economy and 80% of the
◆​ waterfall energy powering turbines poor's needs derive from biological
for electricity resources
◆​ urban forests and green spaces ➔​ rich biodiversity fosters medical discoveries,
absorb carbon dioxide economic development, and adaptive
◆​ herbal liniments derived from plants responses to environmental changes like
for medicine climate change
◆​ coral reefs and mangroves protect
coastal communities from storm WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
surges ➔​ includes the variety of species (plants,
animals, microorganisms), genetic diversity
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY within those species, and ecosystems like
➔​ Kawasan Falls, Badian, Cebu deserts, rainforests, and coral reefs
➔​ a declining biodiversity threatens ecosystem
CARBON SEQUESTRATION health and survival
➔​ urban forests and green spaces absorb
atmospheric carbon dioxide, providing free IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
cleaning services ➔​ boosts ecosystem productivity; every
➔​ use of satellite and mapping technologies species plays a role
enable rapid data collection for ➔​ more plant species mean greater crop
environmental monitoring variety
➔​ example: Tree canopy cover map of ➔​ supports ecosystem sustainability and
Barangay Talamban (University of San resilience to disasters
Carlos PHIL-LIDAR Office 2016)
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY
MEDICINE AND DRUGS BIODIVERSITY
➔​ examples of medicinal substances derived ➔​ protection and maintenance of water
from plants: resources and soils
◆​ methyl salicylate (wintergreen oil) ➔​ nutrient storage, recycling, and pollution
◆​ camphor-menthol breakdown
◆​ counterirritants and efficascent oils ➔​ contribution to climate stability and
ecosystem recovery
PROTECTION FROM FLOODS AND SURGES
➔​ mangroves provide natural protection by BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL BENEFITS FROM
reducing the impact of floods and storm BIODIVERSITY
surges ➔​ resources like food, medicinal drugs, wood,
➔​ importance of mangroves in safeguarding ornamental plants, and genetic reservoirs
lives and properties in coastal areas for breeding

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 ➔​ social benefits include research, education,
recreation, tourism, and cultural values
2.2.1 THE FUTURE OF FOOD
COVID-19, BIODIVERSITY, AND ILLEGAL
WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING
➔​ wildlife markets, especially wet markets by Josh Tetrock, TEDxEdmonton
selling live animals, create hotspots for
zoonotic disease spillover, exemplified by I.​ SPEAKER BACKGROUND
covid-19 ➔​ Josh Tetrick is an American social
➔​ illegal wildlife trafficking exacerbates entrepreneur known for challenging
biodiversity loss and pandemic risks by traditional food systems through technology
spreading pathogens ➔​ he co-founded Hampton Creek (later
➔​ lockdowns affected wildlife trade renamed Eat Just, Inc.), a company using
enforcement, sometimes increasing plant-based and cell-based science to
poaching replace animal-derived food ingredients
➔​ calls exist for banning risky wildlife trade ➔​ his experiences teaching in South Africa,
practices and improving global law Kenya, and Nigeria exposed him to food
enforcement insecurity, inefficient systems, and unequal
➔​ protecting biodiversity is essential for resource access—formative influences on his
pandemic prevention mission
➔​ he studied at Cornell University
BIODIVERSITY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE (undergraduate) and University of
EMERGENCE Michigan Law School, developing a
➔​ diverse biological communities dilute foundation in ethics, development, and
pathogen transmission, reducing infectious policy
disease spread ("dilution effect")
➔​ intact biodiversity regulates host II.​ CENTRAL PREMISE OF THE TALK
populations and ecosystems, minimizing ➔​ the global food system is fundamentally
zoonotic spillover broken
➔​ habitat destruction, land-use change, and ➔​ he speaks from the perspective of a
wildlife exploitation increase human-wildlife problem-solver: someone who believes that
interactions, elevating disease emergence food must be reinvented, not just improved
risks slightly
➔​ species with "fast life histories" (rapid ➔​ frames the future of food as a combination
reproduction) can become dominant hosts, of science, moral responsibility, and
increasing disease transmission economic opportunity
➔​ loss of biodiversity often raises pathogen
transmission, as fewer species means more III.​ PROBLEMS IN TODAY’S FOOD SYSTEM
encounters with competent hosts
➔​ conservation and ecosystem protection can ENVIRONMENTAL STRAIN
mitigate emerging infectious diseases ➔​ industrial animal farming contributes
➔​ interdisciplinary, one health approaches are significantly to:
critical to monitor, prevent, and respond to ◆​ greenhouse gas emissions
disease risks linked to biodiversity ◆​ deforestation
◆​ extreme water use
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 ◆​ soil degradation ➔​ technology enables what the traditional
➔​ the scale at which food is produced today is food system cannot
incompatible with long-term ecological ➔​ advances in:
health ◆​ Computational Biology
◆​ Biochemistry
MASSIVE INEFFICIENCY ◆​ Cellular Agriculture
➔​ huge quantities of crops (corn, soy, wheat) ◆​ Data Science
are grown primarily to feed animals, not ◆​ Automation and Bioreactors
people ➔​ offer new ways to produce food directly
➔​ the imbalance: more food is fed to livestock from plants or cells
than to the 1.3 billion hungry humans
➔​ animal agriculture requires: MARKET INCENTIVES CAN DRIVE MASSIVE
◆​ far more land CHANGE
◆​ far more water ➔​ capitalism can accelerate sustainable food
◆​ longer production cycles transformation if:
◆​ higher energy inputs compared to ◆​ alternative foods taste good,
plant-based alternatives ◆​ are priced competitively, and
◆​ can be produced at scale
ETHICAL CONCERNS
➔​ animals in industrial farms face poor living V.​ HAMPTON CREEK / EAT JUST APPROACH
conditions
➔​ the ethical implications extend to: PLANT-BASED REINVENTION
◆​ animal welfare ➔​ the company identifies plant proteins with
◆​ worker conditions in slaughterhouses specific properties (e.g., emulsification,
◆​ impact on low-income communities gelling) to replace egg functions
◆​ global inequity in food distribution ➔​ Example: Just Mayo and Just Egg —
products where plant proteins mimic eggs
FRAGILITY OF GLOBAL FOOD SUPPLY
➔​ food supply chains rely on limited resources CULTIVATED (CELL-BASED) MEAT
and centralized systems that are vulnerable ➔​ rather than raising entire animals, Eat Just
to: grows real animal cells in bioreactors
◆​ climate change ➔​ benefits:
◆​ pandemics ◆​ eliminates slaughter
◆​ resource shortages ◆​ reduces land and water use
◆​ economic collapse ◆​ produces meat without antibiotics
◆​ potentially decreases foodborne
IV.​ WHY INNOVATION IS NECESSARY illnesses
➔​ the company’s cultivated chicken has been
INCREMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS ARE NOT approved for limited sale in countries like
ENOUGH Singapore​
➔​ “doing what we do now, but more
efficiently” will not solve the problem
➔​ the future population and environmental
limits demand reinvention, not optimization
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TOOL-BUILDING ◆​ trust science-based products
➔​ old systems cannot solve future challenges ◆​ shift long-standing dietary habits
➔​ new tools must be built, such as:
◆​ automated protein discovery ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS
platforms ➔​ high initial investment and production costs
◆​ ingredient databases make early-stage alternatives more
◆​ large-scale bioreactors expensive
◆​ new supply chains built around cell
culture POLITICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL RESISTANCE
➔​ traditional agriculture and food lobbies may
VI.​ SOCIAL AND MORAL DIMENSIONS oppose rapid change
➔​ regulations evolve slowly compared to
FEEDING A GROWING POPULATION technological innovation
➔​ with the world population rising, the old food
model cannot scale sustainably VIII.​ LONG-TERM VISION
➔​ alternative proteins help prevent future
hunger crises NOT JUST BETTER FOOD—A BETTER SYSTEM
➔​ Tetrick imagines a world where:
REDUCING INEQUITY ◆​ fewer animals need to be raised
➔​ reinvented food systems could distribute ◆​ land is returned to forests or
resources more fairly: regenerative agriculture
◆​ less dependency on land-rich ◆​ food production is cleaner, safer, and
countries more equitable
◆​ lower cost of protein production
◆​ new opportunities for farmers and DECADES-LONG MISSION
workers in sustainable industries ➔​ views this work as
◆​ global responsibility multi-generational—something that may
➔​ Tetrick’s experiences in developing countries take “many lifetimes” to achieve fully
shaped his belief that wealthy nations must
innovate solutions that benefit everyone PURPOSE-DRIVEN INNOVATION
➔​ success is measured not just by product sales
VII.​ BARRIERS AND CHALLENGES but by increasing the probability that the
food system shifts toward sustainability
SCALING
➔​ cultivated meat and plant alternatives still
2.2.2 THE SCIENCE IN OUR FOOD
struggle with:
◆​ large-scale manufacturing
◆​ infrastructure costs by Dr. Jim Carrington, TEDxGatewayArch
◆​ supply chain adaptation
◆​ regulatory approval I.​ THE GLOBAL FOOD CHALLENGE

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE MAIN IDEAS

➔​ people must be convinced to: ➔​ the food system of the future cannot rely on
◆​ try new food technologies traditional farming alone
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 ➔​ the world population continues to grow, and ◆​ degraded soils
global food demand will increase ➔​ innovation is the only way to produce more
significantly food with limited land and water
➔​ modern environmental pressures (climate
change, water scarcity, soil degradation) V.​ TRADITIONAL FARMING VS. MODERN
require scientific innovation AGRICULTURAL NEEDS

II.​ ROLE OF SCIENCE IN FEEDING THE MAIN IDEAS

WORLD ➔​ many people romanticize traditional
small-scale farming
MAIN IDEAS ➔​ while valuable, traditional farming alone
➔​ science is not the enemy of natural or cannot feed billions
healthy food ➔​ a combination of tradition + modern science
➔​ scientific research makes food production is required
safer, more efficient, and more sustainable
➔​ without advancements in biology, genetics, VI.​ ADDRESSING MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT
and biotechnology, global food shortages FOOD SCIENCE
would become more severe
MAIN IDEAS
III.​ UNDERSTANDING PLANT BIOLOGY ➔​ public skepticism around “science in food” is
often based on fear or misinformation
MAIN IDEAS ➔​ transparency and education help build trust
➔​ plants have complex defense systems and ➔​ scientific advancements undergo rigorous
adaptive abilities safety testing before being used in food
➔​ research focuses on understanding systems
◆​ how plants grow
◆​ how they respond to stress (heat, VII.​ PLANT RESILIENCE AND INNOVATION
drought, pests)
◆​ how they naturally defend MAIN IDEAS
themselves ➔​ researchers explore ways to allow plants to
➔​ discoveries in plant biology can help grow:
scientists design crops that grow with fewer ◆​ with less water
resources ◆​ with higher yield
◆​ with natural resistance to pests
IV.​ CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESOURCE ➔​ reduced pesticide use = better
LIMITATIONS environmental outcomes
➔​ stronger crop varieties support farmers in
MAIN IDEAS harsh climates
➔​ climate change disrupts weather patterns
and increases crop vulnerability
➔​ future agriculture must adapt to:
◆​ extreme heat
◆​ longer droughts
◆​ stronger pests
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VIII.​ ROLE OF RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS necessary precautions to prevent accidents
or harm
MAIN IDEAS
➔​ the Danforth Plant Science Center focuses COMMON HOUSEHOLD SUBSTANCES AND
on improving human life through plant THEIR USES
research
➔​ projects aim to help both local and global KITCHEN SUBSTANCES
communities ➔​ Lemon Juice - used for cleaning glass,
➔​ collaboration between scientists, farmers, mirrors, brightening whites, disinfecting
governments, and educators is essential cutting boards, and toilet bowls
➔​ Coconut Oil - used to polish wood furniture,
IX.​ SUSTAINABILITY AS THE CENTRAL GOAL replace lubricants like wd-40, and remove
shower scum
MAIN IDEAS ➔​ Apple Cider Vinegar - repels fleas,
➔​ food security must also mean environmental deodorizes laundry, and cleans microwaves
security ➔​ White Vinegar - polishes silver, cleans
➔​ the aim is not just to produce more food, but windows, neutralizes odors, and unclogs
to produce food without damaging drains
ecosystems ➔​ Baking Soda - used to put out fires, scrub
➔​ sustainable agriculture balances: toilets, clean ovens or grills
◆​ crop productivity
◆​ conservation of resources PERSONAL CARE SUBSTANCES
◆​ long-term planetary health ➔​ Lemon Juice - used for removing sunspots,
hair highlighting, wrinkle reduction, and
X.​ CONCLUSION pore shrinking
➔​ the future of food depends on intelligent, ➔​ Coconut Oil - hair serum, lip gloss,
science-driven decisions deodorant, and wrinkle prevention
➔​ scientific progress is essential for solving ➔​ Castile Soap - as body wash and toothpaste
hunger, supporting farmers, and protecting ➔​ Castor Oil - for eyelashes and dry skin
earth’s resources
➔​ ignoring science means risking the stability DIETARY AND MEDICINAL USES
of global food systems ➔​ Lemon Juice - detox, improves digestion,
soothes a sore throat, and strengthens
immunity
2.3 HOUSEHOLD CHEMISTRY
➔​ Apple Cider Vinegar - weight loss, controls
blood pressure, treats yeast infections, and
HOUSEHOLD CHEMISTRY OVERVIEW prevents colds
➔​ chemistry is vital in understanding ➔​ Baking Soda - relieves heartburn and is
substances used in a household environment used as a leavening agent in cooking
➔​ it helps explain and predict chemical
changes and reactions that form new CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN HOUSEHOLD
substances CHEMISTRY
➔​ knowledge of household chemistry ➔​ mixing chemicals can result in entirely new
promotes awareness of chemical safety and substances with different properties
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 ➔​ every chemical reaction in the household IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE
absorbs or evolves heat: ➔​ chemistry knowledge can improve
◆​ Endothermic - absorbs heat decision-making in daily activities like
◆​ Exothermic - releases heat cooking and cleaning
➔​ examples of changes: ➔​ cooking is an application of chemistry
◆​ browning of sliced apples (chemical) involving reactions of food chemicals
◆​ souring of milk (chemical) ➔​ understanding chemical changes helps in
◆​ blackening of sugar in a pan safe and effective use of household products
(chemical)
◆​ melting of ice (physical)
2.4 SIMPLE MACHINES
◆​ water vaporization (physical)

SOAP AND DETERGENTS THE SIX SIMPLE MACHINES

➔​ soaps and detergents are common cleaning
agents made of molecules with: The foundational simple machines include:
◆​ Hydrophobic Tails (repel water, ➔​ Lever
attract oils/dirt) ➔​ Pulley
◆​ Hydrophilic Heads (attracted to ➔​ Wheel and Axle
water) ➔​ Wedge
➔​ surfactants break down and lift oils/dirt ➔​ Screw
from fabrics or surfaces by surrounding the ➔​ Inclined Plane
dirt, preventing redeposition
➔​ detergents are less sensitive to water These machines make work easier by either
hardness than soap multiplying force or changing its direction.
➔​ surfactants reduce surface tension of water,
aiding in removing grease and stains during ENERGY AND WORK
washing ➔​ Energy is defined as the ability to do work
➔​ Work is calculated as the product of force
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL USAGE AND SAFETY and distance:
➔​ household chemicals are used for: ◆​ Work = Force × Distance
◆​ cleaning (non-food chemicals) ➔​ Force is any push or pull applied to an object
◆​ pest control
◆​ general hygiene INCLINED PLANE
➔​ proper usage should follow product labels ➔​ an inclined plane is a flat surface raised
and consider chemical properties such as pH higher on one end
➔​ pH affects the suitability for cleaning ➔​ it lessens the effort required to move objects
different materials like glass, metals, wood, to a higher elevation by increasing the
and upholstery distance over which the force is applied
➔​ safety includes understanding the hazards, ➔​ example: Egyptians built long gentle inclines
proper storage, and disposal of chemicals using dirt ramps and logs to push heavy
limestone blocks for the pyramids
➔​ Mechanical Advantage (MA) is the ratio of
the length of the slope to the height:

8
 ➔​ it can multiply force and also change
slope length
MA = its direction
height ➔​ Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of
the lengths from the fulcrum to
➔​ while the MA increases, the force must be effort and resistance
applied over a longer distance ➔​ examples: crowbars, scissors, pliers,
seesaws
SCREW
➔​ a screw is essentially an inclined plane 2.​ SECOND CLASS LEVER
wrapped around a cylinder ➔​ load is between the fulcrum and
➔​ examples include jar lids and drill bits effort
➔​ the Mechanical Advantage is given by ➔​ effort moves further than resistance
dividing the circumference of the cylinder by ➔​ multiplies effort but does not change
the pitch of the screw, where pitch is the direction
distance between the threads (or the inverse ➔​ examples: nutcrackers,
of the number of turns per inch) wheelbarrows, doors, bottle openers

WEDGE 3.​ THIRD CLASS LEVER

➔​ composed of two inclined planes joined back ➔​ effort is between the fulcrum and the
to back load
➔​ used primarily for cutting or splitting ➔​ does not multiply force but increases
➔​ the Mechanical Advantage of a wedge is the the distance the effort moves
ratio of the slope length to the thickness of ➔​ resistance moves farther than effort
the thick end: ➔​ examples: tweezers, arm hammers,
shovels
slope length (S)
➔​ biological example: bicep muscle
MA =
thickness (T) attaching near the elbow acts as a
third-class lever

➔​ example: if the slope is 10 inches and the

PULLEYS
thickness is 4 inches, then MA is 2.5
➔​ a pulley is a wheel with a groove around its
➔​ as with the inclined plane, it trades greater
edge, requiring a rope, chain, or belt to
distance for less force
operate
➔​ types:
LEVERS
◆​ Fixed Pulley - changes the direction
➔​ levers are rigid bars that rotate around a
of the applied force but provides no
fulcrum to multiply force or change its
mechanical advantage
direction
◆​ Movable Pulley - mechanical
➔​ there are three classes of levers:
advantage equals the number of
rope segments supporting the load
1.​ FIRST CLASS LEVER
◆​ Combined Pulley (Block and Tackle)
➔​ Fulcrum is between the effort (EF)
- reduces the effort needed to less
and the resistance/load (RF)
than half the load's weight, but
➔​ effort moves further than resistance

9
 requires pulling the rope over longer ➔​ social media is a key source for public health
distances information, but also a vector for
misinformation
WHEEL AND AXLE ➔​ critical to find and trust authentic sources
➔​ an axle rigidly connected to a larger wheel; ➔​ a pew research center report states that
turning one turns the other about half of Americans have encountered
➔​ Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of the made-up COVID-19 news on social media
wheel’s radius to the axle’s radius ➔​ users should verify facts by checking the
➔​ example: if the wheel radius is 5 times the source and the correctness of information
axle radius, MA = 5
➔​ can increase force or speed depending on INFLUENCE ON PUBLIC BEHAVIOR
where the effort is applied ➔​ concepts like social distancing and home
➔​ gears, essentially wheel and axle systems, quarantine became popular through social
reverse direction with each gear, and media awareness campaigns
smaller gears rotate faster ➔​ government bodies, celebrities, and
organizations use social platforms to inform
GEARS and encourage health safety actions
➔​ a series of interlocked gears reverse the ➔​ social media also influences social
direction of rotation at each stage behaviors, such as panic buying, which has
➔​ smaller gears rotate faster than larger been both posted about and publicly
gears shamed

RUBE GOLDBERG MACHINES MARKETING PLATFORM

➔​ complex machines made of many simple ➔​ businesses used social media for socially
machines responsible marketing during lockdowns
➔​ used to demonstrate principles of physics ➔​ streaming services provided entertainment
and mechanics in a humorous and elaborate ➔​ markets and restaurants with delivery
way adapted to provide products safely
➔​ example 1: a safety device that uses a chain ➔​ online courses offered with free or
reaction of levers and pulleys to ease a discounted access
person's fall on ice ➔​ the pandemic represents a key moment for
➔​ example 2: a machine to squeeze orange brands to shape their public image
juice using a series of simple machine steps
BRINGING POSITIVITY AND CONNECTION
➔​ despite issues with misinformation, social
2.5 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
media enables connection, support, and
global unity
ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA DURING A PANDEMIC ➔​ sharing personal experiences combats
(COVID-19 CONTEXT) isolation and fosters empathy
➔​ social media has been instrumental for
SOURCE OF INFORMATION AND fundraising and organizing mutual aid
MISINFORMATION ➔​ users post stories, photos, and videos to
support and reassure each other, reinforcing
a sense of community
10
Chap 3
CHAPTER III - TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY
GE - STS 1st Semester | A.Y 2025 - 2026

employment of thermonuclear devices that

3.1 TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY can kill millions in an instant

THE LARGEST NUCLEAR DISASTERS IN HISTORY

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
TECHNOLOGY
I.​ INTRODUCTION
➔​ “What is the point of technology at all?” or
➔​ a nuclear disaster is any event involving
“Why is there, ultimately, technology?” lies
accidental or uncontrolled release of
not in technology itself, but in the human
radioactive materials from a nuclear
being
reactor, military facility, waste site, or
➔​ thus, to understand the meaning of
laboratory setting
technology is to understand the human
➔​ nuclear energy, while powerful and efficient,
being, who not only wields technology, but
carries risks that can result in long-lasting
more primordially brings it into existence
environmental and human consequences if
➔​ philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
systems fail
reexamines the meaning, origin, and
essence of technology
II.​ EARLY / SMALLER NUCLEAR INCIDENTS
➔​ etymon, the ancient Greek term techne, a
word or morpheme from which a later word
EXPERIMENTAL & LABORATORY ACCIDENTS
is derived that is often translated as
➔​ early nuclear research accidents, such as the
"craftsmanship", "craft", or "art", simply
Leipzig L-IV experiment (Germany, 1942),
means knowing, and both words are names
where a reactor experiment caused a steam
for knowledge in the widest sense
explosion and fire
➔​ technology is inseparable from the human
➔​ smaller in scale but demonstrates the
condition, a topic which he focused
dangers of early nuclear experimentation
rigorously and profoundly in his earlier work
“Being and Time” (Sein und Zeit)
MILITARY REACTOR & SUBMARINE INCIDENTS
➔​ Heidegger shows that technology is decisive
➔​ the Soviet submarine K-431 during refueling,
in the formulation and the actualization of
which resulted in an explosive reactor event,
the human, and thus can both be, borrowing
fatalities, and radiation injuries
from the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, “a danger
➔​ nuclear risks are not limited to power
but also a saving power.”
plants—military and naval reactors also
➔​ human beings, with their technological
pose hazards
advancements, not only extended the
human life span, particularly through
III.​ MAJOR NUCLEAR DISASTERS
advancements in medicine, but also made
possible more efficient means of killing
CHERNOBYL DISASTER (1986, UKRAINE)
human beings, from the use of guns that can
➔​ cause: a late-night test combined with
kill a few persons at a time to the
reactor design flaws and human error led to

1
 a massive power surge, explosion, and ◆​ triggered major regulatory reforms
reactor core breach in the U.S. nuclear industry
➔​ consequences: ◆​ demonstrates the importance of
◆​ massive release of radioactive human factors in nuclear safety
material across Europe
◆​ thousands evacuated from the WINDSCALE FIRE (1957, UK)
exclusion zone ➔​ cause: a fire ignited inside a
◆​ long-term health issues, including graphite-moderated reactor during a
thyroid cancer routine operation
➔​ significance: ➔​ consequences:
◆​ rated INES Level 7, the highest ◆​ release of radioactive isotopes,
severity category notably iodine-131
◆​ considered one of the worst nuclear ◆​ milk from a large area was
accidents in history due to its destroyed to prevent contamination
environmental and health impact ➔​ significance:
◆​ considered the worst nuclear
FUKUSHIMA DAIICHI DISASTER (2011, JAPAN) disaster in UK history
➔​ cause: a 9.0 magnitude earthquake ◆​ shows risks associated with early
triggered a devastating tsunami that nuclear technology and inadequate
disabled the reactors’ cooling systems monitoring
➔​ consequences:
◆​ multiple hydrogen explosions and OTHER NOTEWORTHY DISASTERS
partial core meltdowns ➔​ Kyshtym Disaster (1957, USSR) - explosion
◆​ large-scale evacuation of in a nuclear waste facility caused
surrounding communities widespread radioactive contamination,
◆​ long-term contamination requiring which was later kept secret for decades
decades of cleanup ➔​ Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill (1979, USA)
➔​ significance: - a breach in a tailings pond released
◆​ also rated INES Level 7 radioactive waste into the environment
◆​ highlights how natural disasters can ➔​ these examples expand the definition of
escalate nuclear plant vulnerabilities nuclear disaster beyond reactor meltdowns

THREE MILE ISLAND ACCIDENT (1979, USA) IV.​ COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DISASTERS
➔​ cause: a combination of equipment
malfunctions and operator SCALE OF RADIOACTIVE RELEASE
misunderstanding resulted in a partial ➔​ Chernobyl and Fukushima released the
meltdown highest quantities
➔​ consequences: ➔​ Windscale released significant iodine; Three
◆​ containment structure prevented a Mile Island had a minimal release due to
larger catastrophe containment
◆​ limited radioactive release, but
severe damage to public trust in AREA OF CONTAMINATION
nuclear energy ➔​ Chernobyl had the largest long-term
➔​ significance: exclusion zone
2
 ➔​ Fukushima contamination spread along the TRANSPARENCY & REGULATION
Japanese coastline ➔​ disasters highlight the need for better
communication, public trust, and strict
HUMAN IMPACT oversight
➔​ Chernobyl - immediate casualties and ➔​ countries often revise policies following
long-term cancer cases major nuclear incidents
➔​ Fukushima - no immediate radiation
deaths, but massive displacement and VI.​ CONCLUSION
psychological trauma ➔​ while nuclear energy offers powerful
➔​ Three Mile Island - no deaths attributed to benefits, its risks require constant vigilance
radiation, but major public fear and continuous technological improvement
➔​ the largest nuclear disasters serve as
ECONOMIC COST reminders of the importance of safety,
➔​ Fukushima is among the costliest disasters in preparation, and responsible management
history due to decontamination and ➔​ understanding these events helps prevent
decommissioning similar tragedies in the future
➔​ Chernobyl required international aid and a
massive sarcophagus containment project PRINCIPLE OF CAUSALITY
➔​ considered as an instrument, which implies
POLITICAL AND REGULATORY IMPACT that technology is a means to an end and is
➔​ Three Mile Island reshaped U.S. regulatory thus founded on the relation of cause and
frameworks effect
➔​ Fukushima resulted in Japan shutting down ➔​ Causality ↔ Existence
most of its nuclear reactors and shifting ➔​ "When I was young, Cebes, I was
energy policies tremendously eager for the kind of wisdom
which they call investigation of nature. I
V.​ LONG-TERM LESSONS thought it was a glorious thing to know the
causes of everything, why each thing comes
HEALTH & SAFETY into being and why it perishes and why it
➔​ nuclear disasters lead to both immediate exists […]” Plato (429–347 BCE)
health risks and long-term cancer effects ➔​ notice that the knowledge of these causes
➔​ psychological consequences from implies knowledge of the thing’s existence
evacuation and uncertainty are substantial ➔​ this relation becomes clearer when the
principle of causality was further expounded
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS by Plato’s student, Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE)
➔​ long-lasting soil and water contamination ➔​ according to Aristotle, there are four causes:
➔​ creation of exclusion zones where human ◆​ the material [causa materialis],
presence is restricted for decades ◆​ formal [causa formalis],
◆​ efficient [causa efficiens], and
IMPORTANCE OF REDUNDANCY ◆​ final [causa finalis]
➔​ modern reactors must have multiple backup ➔​ physical elements that find their unity under
systems for cooling and containment our comprehension of “wood.” It is wood
➔​ natural disasters must be accounted for in that serves as the material cause of this
design wooden chair

3
WOODEN CHAIR emergence in itself, but it is an
➔​ Efficient Cause - one that brought it into emergence that requires the play of
existence: the carpenter the four causes, specifically the
➔​ Material Cause - physical elements that find carpenter, for the case of our
its unity under our comprehension of wooden chair
“wood.” It is wood that serves as the ➔​ for Heidegger, technology is now
material cause of this wooden chair understood in its essence as that which
➔​ Final Cause - circumscribes the wooden occasions the passing from nothing to
chair as furniture or as a throne, which something; technology is a bringing-forth
means that the unity of both formal and ➔​ this means that technology brings forth
material sets forth the completion of the what is concealed to appear, thus making it
thing unconcealed; this makes technology a
➔​ Formal Cause - based on the shape which revealing of what was concealed before
the material cause (wood) has taken, which ➔​ technology ➜ bringing-forth ➜ revealing
is its “chair-ness.” (aletheia)
➔​ this explains the etymology of technology,
PRINCIPLE OF CAUSALITY which in Greek is technikon and is derived
➔​ both the material and formal causes are from its root techne
co-responsible for the occurrence of the ➔​ techne refers both to the “activities and skills
object of the craftsman” and the “arts of the mind
➔​ the final cause, too, is co-responsible for the and fine arts”
existence of the wooden chair ➔​ it is in this sense that technology as techne is
➔​ what brings the wooden chair into existence a bringing-forth in another, a poiesis, a
is the carpenter, who is called the “efficient revealing, a way to truth, and an
cause” unconcealment of being

TECHNOLOGY AS BRINGING-FORTH AND POIESIS

CHALLENGING-FORTH ➔​ bringing-forth
➔​ responsibility and occasioning as the ➔​ a saving power
essence of causality
➔​ from nothing to something “bringing-forth” GE-STELL
concealment to unconcealment ➔​ challenging-forth
➔​ Heidegger classifies bringing-forth or ➔​ a danger
poiesis in two: ➔​ block unconcealment or truth
1.​ Bringing-Forth In-Itself (Physis) - ➔​ ex., modern technology
an occasioning from nothing to ➔​ the human being, through modern
something, an emergence, it is a technology, becomes absorbed in its
form of bringing-forth that is “calculative forces” such that the human
characterized in a kind of irruption being becomes a mere cog in the machine, a
that may find its paradigm in nature; mere thing whose possibilities are already
“the bursting of a blossom into determined
bloom, in itself” ➔​ the human being becomes merely what
2.​ Bringing-Forth In-Another - a Heidegger calls a standing-reserve, waiting
bringing-forth that is not a sudden to be unlocked, transformed, stored,
4
 distributed, switched; in all, his life becomes ANXIETY AND ADDICTION TO VALIDATION
regulated as a mere thing and instrument ➔​ social media fuels “social self-validation”:
for efficiency, productivity, and people curate their online personas to
functionality—Heidegger calls this receive likes, comments, and shares
Enframing ➔​ among teenagers, she cites a claim that
many post to instagram after 5 pm because
HOW SOCIAL MEDIA MAKES US UNSOCIAL that’s when engagement (likes) is highest
(ALLISON GRAHAM, TEDXSMU) ➔​ emotional turmoil arises because “the
number of likes somehow equals our
I.​ MAIN ARGUMENTS & THEMES self-esteem”

PARADOX OF CONNECTIVITY SAFETY & DISTRACTION

➔​ although people are “connected” via social ➔​ a study from Cohen Children’s Medical
media, many feel more alone Center says texting while driving is now the
➔​ she observes common social behaviors: number one cause of teen fatalities,
friends or couples together physically, but outranking drunk driving
glued to their phones ➔​ how “constant connection” can lead to
➔​ the phone often takes priority over the dangerous behavior and real-world risks
person right in front of you: “there’s
someone…on the other end of the screen II.​ SOLUTIONS & CALLS TO ACTION
that’s way more important than you”
PAUSE & REFLECT
OVER-RELIANCE AND HABIT ➔​ a screen-free challenge: unplug for at least
➔​ people check their phones up to 150 times a one hour a day
day ➔​ to “look up”—literally—and make human
➔​ a huge volume of content creation: “we connections: see your neighbor, talk
upload 1.8 billion pictures to Facebook” face-to-face
every day
➔​ this behavior demonstrates how deeply REBALANCE SOCIAL MEDIA USE
integrated social media is in daily ➔​ use social media intentionally: not just for
life—almost a default reflex “hashtag activism,” but for people activism
➔​ building real, physical communities, not just
LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION EROSION online presence
➔​ criticized the “shortened vocabulary” ➔​ teach human interaction; social skills and
common on social media: slang and in-person conversation should be as valued
abbreviations like “OMG,” “LOL,” “WTF.” as digital communication
➔​ by abbreviating language, people risk losing
“nuances, subtleties, and intimate parts” of RETHINK COMMUNICATION
personality ➔​ reclaiming deeper, more expressive
➔​ this “loss of vocabulary” could lead to language—resisting the impulse to shorten
diminished capacity to fully express complex everything into acronyms
thoughts or emotions ➔​ advocate for “positive face-to-face groups
and meeting places” as an antidote to
superficial online engagement
5
 III.​ IMPACTS & IMPLICATIONS INSTRUMENTALITY AND CAUSALITY
➔​ the talk suggests a cultural shift: social ➔​ technology as instrumentality ties deeply
media changes not only how people into fourfold causality, stemming from
connect, but how they feel connected Aristotle: material, formal, final, and
➔​ there is a trade-off between quantity of efficient causes
“friends” (online) and quality of human ➔​ these causes are ways of being responsible
relationships (real-life) or indebted for something’s existence, not
➔​ language change: the evolution (or merely mechanical causes
devolution) of vocabulary could have
long-term effects on communication skills TECHNOLOGY AS A MODE OF REVEALING
and emotional intelligence (ALETHEIA)
➔​ validation-based self-esteem: social media ➔​ technology is a form of “bringing-forth”
may push people (especially younger users) (poiesis), a revealing that unconceals what
to tie their self-worth to online metrics was hidden
➔​ societal and personal consequences: texting ➔​ Greek techne, the root of technology, means
while driving, constant distraction, and loss craftsmanship and art, and reflects this
of presence are real dangers. revealing essence
➔​ a call for intentional digital citizenship:
using social media responsibly, not letting it MODERN TECHNOLOGY’S DISTINCT
replace real human interactions CHARACTER
➔​ unlike ancient techne, modern technology
reveals by “challenging-forth” (ge-stell, or
THE QUESTION CONCERNING
3.2 enframing)
TECHNOLOGY
➔​ this is a mode that challenges nature to yield
energy to be extracted, stored, and ordered
The question concerning technology is not about for human use
the existence or forms of technology, but about our
orientation and relationship to its essence. CONCEPT OF ENFRAMING (GE-STELL)
➔​ enframing orders the world and everything
Technology is often defined as “a means to an end” in it, including humans, into a
and “a human activity.” These are accurate but “standing-reserve” (bestand), ready for
incomplete. instrumental use
➔​ humans become absorbed in calculative
ESSENCE VS. MERE TECHNOLOGICAL ENTITIES thinking, treated as resources or objects in
➔​ the essence of technology is not this system
technological—i.e., it is not found in ➔​ the essence of modern technology is this
machines or tools themselves or in their mode of revealing as ordering and
human usage alone challenging
➔​ for example, the parts of an automobile or
the labor involved belong to technology, but DANGER AND SAVING POWER
are not the essence ➔​ enframing signifies a supreme danger by
concealing the true revealing and reducing
beings to mere instruments

6
 ➔​ yet, there exists a “saving power” within this ➔​ things lose their ownness and become
danger, a potential to recover revealing and stockpiled objects on call
truth
HUMAN BEINGS AND ENFRAMING
HUMAN FREEDOM AND DESTINY RELATED TO ➔​ humans too become part of the
TECHNOLOGY standing-reserve, subordinated to economic
➔​ freedom consists in our ability to respond to and technological systems
the essence of technology knowingly, rather ➔​ yet humans are not completely reduced to
than being enslaved to it this state; they partake in ordering but can
➔​ technology’s essence is a “destining” or “way also resist and question
of revealing” that humans are part of but
must also question and watch over THE ESSENCE OF TECHNOLOGY REMAINS
➔​ only through questioning can a free AMBIGUOUS AND MYSTERIOUS
relationship with technology develop ➔​ this ambiguity points to the mystery of all
revealing, and the interplay of danger and
RELATIONSHIP TO SCIENCE AND NATURE saving power
➔​ modern science, especially physics, depends ➔​ a thoughtful, attentive questioning and
on and participates in technology’s mindfulness toward technology is necessary
enframing for preserving human essence and truth
➔​ this mutual relation grounds the modern
technological worldview

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFORMS NATURE

➔​ nature is no longer simply cared for but is
“set upon” and challenged to give up
resources
➔​ example: land is seen as ore, coal, or
uranium deposits for human exploitation

TECHNOLOGY’S ORDERING CONTINUES

ENDLESSLY
➔​ unlocking, transforming, storing,
distributing, and switching are ongoing
revealing processes within enframing
➔​ the revealed world is always regulated,
secured, and ordered for maximum yield
and efficiency

ENFRAMING’S CONCEALMENT OF TRUTH

➔​ while ordering and challenging reveal
energies and resources, they also block
deeper unconcealment or truth (aletheia)

7
Chap 4
CHAPTER IV - EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN SOCIETIES
GE - ETHICS 1st Semester | A.Y 2025 - 2026

➔​ planets sometimes move faster, sometimes

4.3.1 THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION slower, and occasionally appear to stop and
move backward (retrograde motion)
➔​ Ptolemy's solution introduced epicycles
THE GEOCENTRIC MODEL OF THE SOLAR
(small circles) and deferents (big circles) to
SYSTEM AND UNIVERSE
explain retrograde motion
➔​ Earth is the center of the universe
➔​ equant point was used to refine observation
➔​ the sun, the planets, and stars revolve in
predictions
perfect circular motion around the Earth
➔​ Earth is fixed
THE HELIOCENTRIC MODEL OF THE SOLAR
➔​ heavenly bodies are perfect
SYSTEM
➔​ proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
COMMON AND DIRECT OBSERVATIONS
➔​ Copernican system retained circular motion,
SUPPORTING THE GEOCENTRIC MODEL:
epicycles, and deferents but placed the sun,
➔​ the sun appears to revolve around the Earth
not Earth, at the center
once per day
➔​ though some inaccuracies remained, the
➔​ the moon, stars, and planets have their own
Heliocentric Theory was fundamentally
motions and appear to revolve around the
correct
Earth once per day
➔​ Venus and Mercury no longer revolved
➔​ the sky appears not to be fixed from the
around points between Earth and sun but
standpoint of an earthbound observer
orbited the Sun like other planets
➔​ explained retrograde motion naturally as
ANCIENT GREEK ASTRONOMY AND THE
planets passing each other in their orbits
GEOCENTRIC MODEL

GALILEO GALILEI'S CONTRIBUTIONS

PLATO AND ARISTOTLE:
➔​ defended the Heliocentric model using
➔​ Earth was a sphere, stationary, and at the
primitive telescopes
center of the universe
➔​ observed phases of Venus, proving Venus
➔​ planets were carried around the Earth on
orbits the sun, not Earth
spheres or circles
➔​ discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter,
➔​ stars located on the celestial sphere, the
proving celestial bodies can orbit moving
outermost sphere
bodies
➔​ observed sunspots, contradicting Aristotle's
THE PTOLEMAIC MODEL
idea of perfect heavens and showing the sun
➔​ developed by Ptolemy, it was a geocentric
rotates
model in agreement with Aristotle
➔​ noted the moon's imperfect surface,
➔​ planets move with uniform circular motion
contradicting Aristotle's contention
➔​ simple circular paths centered on Earth did
➔​ published "Sidereus Nuncius" and faced
not explain the observed motion
controversy with the Catholic Church

1
 ➔​ sentenced to life imprisonment but acquitted ➔​ moon, sun, and stars held in place by
centuries later invisible crystalline spheres

JOHANNES KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY ASTRONOMICAL QUESTIONS TO EXPLAIN

MOTION 1.​ Why does the sun exhibit daily motion across
➔​ studied Tycho Brahe's data the sky?
➔​ discovered the orbit of Mars and all planets 2.​ Why do the sun and planets move eastward
are elliptical, with the Sun at one focus along the Zodiac?
➔​ overturned the 2000-year-old belief in 3.​ How can planetary brightness variations be
perfect circular motion explained?
➔​ planets move faster when closer to the Sun 4.​ Why are Mercury and Venus never seen
and slower when farther away opposite the sun in the sky?
➔​ abandoned uniform circular motion 5.​ Why do some planets have retrograde
➔​ his work paved the way for modern motion, appearing to move backward?
astronomy
COPERNICAN MODEL DETAILS
ISAAC NEWTON'S CONTRIBUTIONS ➔​ Earth rotates daily, causing the daily motion
➔​ known as the father of classical physics from east to west
➔​ formulated Newton's three laws of motion ➔​ Mercury and Venus are inferior planets,
➔​ developed the Universal Law of Gravitation explaining why they are always seen near
➔​ his work was built on Galileo’s and Kepler’s the sun
findings ➔​ sun's annual motion along the ecliptic zodiac
is caused by Earth's orbital motion (a difficult
BACKGROUND: THE BEGINNING OF MODERN concept to accept)
ASTRONOMY ➔​ retrograde motion explained naturally as
one planet passing another as they orbit the
15TH CENTURY CONTEXT sun
➔​ Ottoman Turks overran Constantinople in
1453; Romans fled west, bringing books to 4.3.2 THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
Europe
➔​ this event ended the Middle Ages
ORIGINS OF LIFE
➔​ most people were illiterate and relied on the
➔​ the origin of life remains speculative with
Bible and trusted sources for understanding
four alternate views:
the world
◆​ Creationism
◆​ Panspermia
15TH CENTURY ASTRONOMY
◆​ Undersea Thermal Vents
➔​ Earth was considered a stationary sphere at
◆​ Primordial Soup
the center of heaven
➔​ habitable surface thought to be a flat circle
THE TREE OF LIFE
with Jerusalem at its center
➔​ diverse lineages of bacteria, archaea, and
➔​ stars and planets made of a perfect
eukaryotes, representing the major
substance called aether (5th heavenly
branches of life, including many isolated and
element)
uncultured groups

2
MILESTONES IN EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT ➔​ adaptations are heritable traits that aid
survival and reproduction
MILESTONE (1) FIXED SPECIES ➔​ limits to adaptation include environmental
➔​ until after the Renaissance, species were change and reproductive capacity
considered fixed creations ➔​ rapid reproducers (e.g., bacteria) adapt
➔​ Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel fresco reflects faster than slow reproducers (e.g.,
this worldview elephants)

MILESTONE (2) TRANSMUTATION PLANT ADAPTATIONS

➔​ early 1800s scientists wondered if species ➔​ highlighted as examples of adaptation to
could change the environment
➔​ Lamarck proposed acquired traits could be
passed to offspring (e.g., giraffes’ long necks MILESTONE (6) GENETICS
from straining) ➔​ Gregor Mendel (1856–63) with pea plants
showed:
MILESTONE (3) FOSSILS AND STRATA ◆​ offspring receive traits from both
➔​ around the same time, geologists like parents
William Smith mapped fossils and rock ◆​ dominant traits expressed in
strata offspring
➔​ this showed species changed over time, ◆​ Mendel’s work was rediscovered in
indicating past species differed from present 1900 after his death
ones
MILESTONE (7) MODERN SYNTHESIS
MILESTONE (4) DARWIN'S VOYAGE ➔​ early 20th century synthesis of Darwinian
➔​ 1831–1836: Charles Darwin’s world tour on selection and Mendelian genetics
HMS Beagle ➔​ explained how environmental pressures
➔​ observed a great diversity of life, sparking select traits within populations
questions about species' origins ➔​ Julian Huxley named this the Modern
Synthesis, revitalizing natural selection
MILESTONE (5) SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
➔​ 1859 Darwin’s "Origin of Species" proposed: MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
◆​ limited food leads to competition
◆​ only the fittest survive (natural MECHANISM (1): GENES
selection) ➔​ genotype: genetic makeup
◆​ adapted individuals propagate, ➔​ phenotype: traits expressed by genotype
leading to new species and environment

DARWINIAN NATURAL SELECTION MECHANISM (2): DNA

➔​ three conditions for natural selection: ➔​ double-helix structure discovered in 1953
◆​ natural variability in traits ➔​ genetic information is transmitted nearly
◆​ traits must be heritable error-free among cells
◆​ traits lead to differential
reproduction

3
MECHANISM (3): MUTATION ➔​ Perpetual Change: Species continuously
➔​ mutations are copying errors or caused by change
radiation/viruses ➔​ nature includes physical and biological
➔​ types include deletion, duplication, inversion, limiting factors such as disease, competition,
and insertion predation, and environmental change
➔​ usually harmful but can sometimes be ➔​ limiting factors regulate an organism's
beneficial or neutral survival

MECHANISM (4): VARIATION TAKE-HOME MESSAGE

➔​ mutations create genetic variation ➔​ populations respond to environmental
➔​ gene variants are called alleles (e.g., changes by:
brown/blonde hair) ◆​ migrating
◆​ already being adapted
MECHANISM (5): NATURAL SELECTION PROCESS ◆​ dying
➔​ mutations produce variation ➔​ natural selection acts only on existing
➔​ natural selection favors beneficial mutations inherited alleles
➔​ harmful mutations are selected against ➔​ the environment does not create favorable
➔​ sexual reproduction spreads favorable heritable traits
alleles
DEFINITION OF EVOLUTION
MECHANISM (6): MICROEVOLUTION ➔​ descent with modification as per Darwin
➔​ small changes in gene frequencies within ➔​ change in the genetic makeup of a
populations population over generations
➔​ requires genetic variability ➔​ those with adaptive traits survive and
➔​ example: antibiotic resistance in bacteria reproduce
➔​ all species descended from earlier ancestors
MECHANISM (7): MACROEVOLUTION
➔​ long-term evolutionary changes creating THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION: RETHINKING
new species ITS MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE
➔​ occurs when populations are isolated and by Michael Ruse
can no longer interbreed
➔​ Darwin’s Galapagos finches are an example I.​ INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS BEING
QUESTIONED?
MECHANISM (8): SPECIATION
➔​ requires reproductive isolation: A.​ TRADITIONAL VIEW
◆​ geographic isolation ➔​ the “Darwinian Revolution” is widely
◆​ temporal isolation (different mating considered a major turning point in
times) Western science
◆​ behavioral isolation (mating rituals) ➔​ Ruse’s 1979 book The Darwinian
◆​ anatomical differences Revolution assumed this without
◆​ genetic inviability (e.g., mules) dispute

UNIFYING PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION B.​ CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES

4
 ➔​ three main questions now arise: ◆​ Post-Darwinians (e.g.,
1.​ Was there a revolution at all? (Some Haeckel, orthogeneticists)
historians deny that scientific ◆​ 20th-century evolutionary
revolutions meaningfully exist.) thinkers
2.​ Was it Darwinian? (Some argue 2.​ METAPHORICAL VALIDITY
Darwin’s contribution was not ➔​ we also speak of “technological
unique.) revolution”; such metaphors can
3.​ What kind of revolution was it usefully capture large-scale changes
conceptually? (A scientific shift? A
metaphysical shift? Both?) C.​ TWO LEVELS OF THE “DARWINIAN
➔​ Ruse aims to address all three REVOLUTION”
➔​ Ruse argues the Darwinian revolution
II.​ WAS THERE A DARWINIAN happened at two deeply significant levels:
REVOLUTION? 1.​ SCIENTIFIC LEVEL
➔​ the theory of evolution by natural
A.​ OPPOSITION TO THE IDEA OF selection (Origin of Species, 1859)
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS ➔​ shift from static species to dynamic,
1.​ JONATHAN HODGE’S CRITICISM evolving, naturally explained
➔​ claims the term “revolution” in lifeforms.
science is misleading 2.​ METAPHYSICAL LEVEL
➔​ it forces historians to focus on ➔​ collapse of the traditional view that
dramatic individuals/events and humans are miraculously special
ignore broader developments ➔​ forced a rethinking of human
➔​ scientific change may not have the identity, morality, and place in nature
sharp breaks implied by “revolution.” ➔​ created modern tensions: religious
2.​ PROBLEMS WITH THE TERM resistance, secular thinking, scientific
➔​ revolutions are political metaphors, materialism
but even political revolutions don’t ➔​ both levels produced massive breaks with
share universal features the past, making “revolution” appropriate
➔​ using “revolution” risks reinforcing a
simplistic narrative III.​ WAS THE REVOLUTION DARWINIAN? —
SCIENCE
B.​ DEFENSE OF USING “REVOLUTION”
1.​ PRACTICAL USEFULNESS A.​ DID DARWIN BORROW OR STEAL IDEAS?
➔​ historians must start somewhere; 1.​ CLAIMS OF PLAGIARISM OR
focusing on Darwin did not halt PRECEDENCE
broader interest in other ➔​ accusations have targeted several
contributors figures:
➔​ over the past decades, research has ◆​ Alfred Russel Wallace –
expanded to include: co-discovered natural
◆​ early pre-Darwinian selection
evolutionists ◆​ Edward Blyth – early ideas
◆​ Darwin’s contemporaries on variation, but an
(e.g., Huxley) anti-evolutionist
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 ◆​ Robert Chambers – author ➔​ natural selection was partially
of Vestiges, popularizing accepted, but most biologists
evolution favored:
◆​ Lamarckism
2.​ RUSE’S RESPONSE: DARWIN WAS ◆​ Orthogenesis
ORIGINAL ◆​ Saltationism
➔​ Darwin’s 1842 35-page Sketch ➔​ leading figures (e.g., Huxley)
already contains: accepted evolution but distrusted
◆​ natural selection selection
◆​ sexual selection
◆​ argument structure of the C.​ PERIOD 3: ~1930 → PRESENT
origin ➔​ emergence of professional evolutionary
◆​ even stylized phrasing later biology
used in the book ➔​ Population genetics (Fisher, Haldane,
➔​ Wallace’s version differed: Wright) + natural history (Dobzhansky, Ford)
◆​ denied the importance of ➔​ the Modern Synthesis placed natural
artificial selection selection at the center
◆​ never used the term “natural ➔​ Darwin’s natural selection became
selection” dominant, though updated with genetics
◆​ more group-selectionist ➔​ thus Darwin’s influence is felt twice:
➔​ Blyth denied evolution completely 1.​ making evolution scientifically
➔​ Chambers influenced public opinion accepted
but lacked scientific rigor 2.​ providing the central mechanism
later developed into modern
➔​ Conclusion: Darwin did not steal; he evolutionary biology
provided the first coherent, causal,
scientifically argued theory V.​ WHY DARWIN SUCCEEDED
SCIENTIFICALLY
IV.​ THREE ERAS OF EVOLUTIONARY
THOUGHT (RUSE’S FRAMEWORK) A.​ HIS USE OF THE “VERA CAUSA” METHOD
➔​ scientists of Darwin’s era demanded that
A.​ PERIOD 1: 18TH CENTURY → 1859 causes in science be:
(PRE-DARWIN) ◆​ observable (Herschel) or
➔​ evolution was a pseudo-science grounded ◆​ explanatorily powerful across
more in ideology (e.g., belief in progress) many facts (Whewell – “consilience
than evidence of inductions”)
➔​ evidence was fragmentary: embryology, ➔​ Darwin satisfied both:
fossils, homologies without causal 1.​ ANALOGY TO ARTIFICIAL
mechanisms SELECTION (OBSERVABLE CAUSE)
➔​ breeders demonstrated
B.​ PERIOD 2: 1859 → ~1930 (DARWIN TO change through selection
NEO-DARWINISM) ➔​ people understood animal
➔​ evolution became a popular science, breeding, so this analogy
but not yet a professional one softened resistance
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 2.​ CONSILIENCE ACROSS DIVERSE B.​ 2. NATURAL SELECTION EXPLAINS
EVIDENCE HUMAN NATURE
➔​ Darwin applied natural ➔​ Darwin argued:
selection to: ◆​ morality
◆​ biogeography ◆​ sociality
◆​ fossil record ◆​ intelligence
◆​ embryology ◆​ sexual behavior
◆​ anatomy ➔​ …evolved through natural and sexual
◆​ instinct selection
◆​ systematics ➔​ this has influenced:
◆​ E.O. Wilson (sociobiology)
➔​ this sweeping explanatory power was ◆​ behavioral ecology
persuasive ◆​ evolutionary psychology

B.​LIMITS OF EARLY ACCEPTANCE CRITICISMS

➔​ evolution became widely accepted ➔​ some accuse “Darwinization of human
➔​ but natural selection was not nature” as ideological
➔​ objections included: ➔​ errors in evolutionary psychology (e.g.,
◆​ “blending inheritance” would dilute criticism by Lisa Lloyd, David Buller)
variation ➔​ Marxists like Lewontin reject biological
◆​ Earth is not old enough (Kelvin’s explanations for human behavior
incorrect thermal calculations)
◆​ adaptation seemed too perfect C.​ 3. HUMANS ARE NOT SPECIAL (EQUALITY
(encouraged directed evolution or IN NATURE)
saltationism) ➔​ Darwin did not personally believe humans
➔​ thus the initial revolution was evolution yes; were special
selection maybe ◆​ he saw evolutionary progress
◆​ Europeans as the “highest” forms
VI.​ WAS THERE A DARWINIAN ◆​ later editions of Origin included
REVOLUTION? — METAPHYSICS arguments for progressive evolution
➔​ Ruse identifies three meanings of placing ➔​ Modern Scientists
humans in nature: ◆​ most avoid progressivist claims
◆​ Gould argued that evolution has no
A.​ 1. HUMANS ARE FULLY NATURAL direction; progress is a
➔​ governed by the same physical and misconception
biological laws as animals ◆​ public perception still sees evolution
➔​ Darwin established this scientifically as progress toward humans
(especially in Descent of Man, 1871)
➔​ supported later by Huxley and many VII.​ WHAT KIND OF REVOLUTION WAS IT? —
other thinkers CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
➔​ Religious resistance persists (Catholic ➔​ Ruse compares two models of scientific
doctrine on souls, creationism, intelligent change:
design) A.​ LOGICAL EMPIRICIST MODEL
(NAGEL, HEMPEL)
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➔​ science changes rationally and ➔​ these existed before, during, and after
continuously Darwin, meaning the revolution was not
➔​ new theories replace old ones, but cleanly Kuhnian, but had Kuhnian features
with continuity
➔​ Example: Sedgwick (anti-evolution) VIII.​ FORMALISM VS FUNCTIONALISM (A
was replaced by Darwin as fossils DEEPER PARADIGM DIVIDE)
supported evolution
A.​ FUNCTIONALISTS
REDUCTION ➔​ focus on adaptation, utility, natural
➔​ Darwin “absorbed” older ideas: selection
◆​ Owen’s homology ideas ➔​ Darwin, Dawkins (modern)
became natural
consequences of descent B.​ FORMALISTS
with modification ➔​ focus on structural constraints,
◆​ Cuvier’s “conditions of homology, morphology
existence” folded into natural ➔​ Owen, Huxley, Gould (spandrels),
selection evo-devo biologists
➔​ thus, Darwinian theory incorporated ➔​ this divide:
and reinterpreted older frameworks ◆​ preceded Darwin
◆​ continued through the 19th
B.​ KUHNIAN MODEL (PARADIGM century
SHIFTS) ◆​ still exists today (evo-devo
➔​ scientific change is abrupt, revival)
revolutionary, and non-rational ➔​ this suggests the Darwinian revolution did
➔​ competing paradigms talk past each not replace one paradigm with another;
other rather, it intensified ongoing dual
approaches
KUHNIAN ASPECTS IN THE
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION IX.​ CONCLUSION
➔​ Darwin vs. Owen: naturalistic vs.
idealistic view of homology A.​ WAS THERE A DARWINIAN
➔​ disputes were not just scientific, but REVOLUTION?
about: Yes — but it was complex.
◆​ the role of God ➔​ Scientific Revolution: Acceptance of
◆​ human uniqueness evolution; later professionalization of
◆​ human moral status evolutionary biology
➔​ debates became personal and ➔​ Metaphysical Revolution: Humans placed in
political (Sedgwick, Wilberforce, nature; debates about meaning and
Owen vs Huxley) morality
➔​ Ruse concludes multiple paradigms
overlapped, including: B.​ WAS IT DARWINIAN?
◆​ functionalism Yes — but not exclusively.
(adaptation-first) ➔​ Darwin was the major catalyst
◆​ formalism (homology-first) ➔​ others contributed pre- and post-Darwin
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➔​ yet the core causal mechanism (natural
selection) is uniquely Darwin's

C.​ WHAT KIND OF REVOLUTION WAS IT?

➔​ not purely Kuhnian, not purely continuous
➔​ involves:
◆​ rational scientific change
◆​ paradigm conflicts
◆​ deep metaphysical disputes
◆​ continuing debates (evo-devo,
progress, human uniqueness)

D.​ ONGOING CONTROVERSIES

➔​ Ruse notes key debates he did not discuss
fully here:
◆​ Was Darwin Romantic (Richards) or
English-empirical (Ruse)?
◆​ Was post-Darwinian biology good
science or misguided (Bowler vs.
Ruse)?
◆​ Did the Modern Synthesis continue
or replace 19th-century evolution?
➔​ these show the revolution is still being
interpreted and contested