MODULE IV: Radiation, MEMS & Smart Sensors
1. Radiation Sensors
I. Radiation-Matter Interaction
A. Interaction Processes
1. Photoelectric effect: Low energy (<100keV)
2. Compton scattering: Medium energy (100keV-10MeV)
3. Pair production: High energy (>1.02MeV)
B. Key Parameters
Energy resolution: ΔE/E
Detection efficiency
Dead time: Minimum time between detectable events
Energy range: eV to GeV
II. Detector Types
A. Gas Detectors
Energy
Type Voltage Gain Applications
Info
Ionization 100- Radiation monitoring,
1 Yes
chamber 500V smoke detectors
Proportional 500- 10³- Particle identification,
Yes
counter 2000V 10⁴ neutron detection
800- 10⁶- Survey meters,
Geiger-Müller No
1500V 10⁸ contamination detection
B. Scintillation Detectors
Materials:
Inorganic: NaI(Tl), CsI(Tl), BGO (high density, good light yield)
Organic: Plastics, liquids (fast response, low Z)
Glass: Ce-doped (radiation hard, stable)
Photodetectors:
PMT: High gain, sensitive, needs high voltage
SiPM: Solid-state, compact, low voltage
APD: Moderate gain, good linearity
C. Semiconductor Detectors
Materials and Properties:
Material Bandgap (eV) Z Applications
Si 1.12 14 Alpha, beta, X-rays
Ge 0.67 32 Gamma spectroscopy
CdTe/ Room temperature
1.44-1.6 48-52
CdZnTe gamma
GaAs 1.42 31-33 X-ray imaging
D. Neutron Detectors
1. Gas proportional: ³He, BF₃
2. Scintillation: Li-glass, LiI(Eu)
3. Semiconductor: Li-drifted Si, diamond
III. Microwave Antennas as Sensors
A. Radar Principles
1. Pulse radar: Distance from time delay
2. FMCW: Distance from frequency difference
3. Doppler: Velocity from frequency shift
B. Antenna Types for Sensing
Patch antennas: Compact, low cost
Horn antennas: High gain, precise
Array antennas: Beam steering, MIMO
C. Emerging Applications
Through-wall sensing: Rescue operations
Vital signs monitoring: Heartbeat, respiration
Material characterization: Moisture, density
Structural health: Crack detection, corrosion
2. MEMS Technology
I. Fabrication Techniques
A. Bulk Micromachining
1. Wet etching:
o Isotropic: HNA (HF: HNO₃:CH₃COOH)
o Anisotropic: KOH, TMAH (crystal plane dependent)
2. Dry etching:
o RIE: Moderate aspect ratio
o DRIE: High aspect ratio (>20:1), sidewall control
B. Surface Micromachining
1. Sacrificial layer technology
2. Structural layers: PolySi, SiN, metals
3. Release: HF vapor, critical point drying
C. Wafer Bonding
1. Anodic bonding: Glass to silicon (300-400°C)
2. Fusion bonding: Si to Si (high temperature)
3. Adhesive bonding: Low temperature, various materials
II. MEMS Sensors - Detailed Analysis
A. Accelerometers - Design Evolution
1. First generation: Large proof mass, fragile
2. Second generation: Comb fingers, differential sensing
3. Third generation: Nanogaps, sub-μg resolution
4. Fourth generation: Multi-axis, system-in-package
B. Gyroscopes - Performance Enhancement
1. Mode matching: Drive and sense at same frequency
2. Quadrature nulling: Electrostatic trimming
3. Temperature compensation: On-chip sensors, algorithms
4. Packaging: Vacuum sealing for high Q
C. Pressure Sensors - Medical Focus
1. Intracranial: 0-100mmHg, absolute pressure
2. Blood pressure: 0-300mmHg, dynamic response
3. Intraocular: 0-50mmHg, miniature packaging
4. Implantable: Biocompatible packaging, wireless
D. Emerging MEMS Sensors
1. Gas sensors: MEMS preconcentrators, micro-hotplates
2. Environmental: Humidity, particulate matter
3. Biochemical: Lab-on-chip, biosensors
4. Energy harvesting: Piezoelectric, thermal
III. MEMS Actuators
A. Electrostatic Actuators
1. Parallel plate: Simple, limited stroke
2. Comb drive: Larger stroke, linear force
3. Scratch drive: Stepwise motion, high force
4. Applications: Optical switches, micro positioning
B. Thermal Actuators
1. Hot/cold arm: Bimorph bending
2. Chevron: In-plane motion
3. V-shaped: Out-of-plane motion
4. Applications: Microgrippers, microvalves
C. Piezoelectric Actuators
1. Materials: PZT, AlN, ZnO
2. Configurations: Unimorph, bimorph, stack
3. Applications: Inkjet nozzles, AFM probes, autofocus
D. Magnetic Actuators
1. Integrated coils: On-chip electromagnets
2. Permanent magnets: NdFeB, SmCo
3. Applications: Microrobots, drug delivery
3. Smart Sensors & Actuators
I. Architecture & Components
A. Block Diagram Evolution
Traditional: Sensor → Cable → Signal Conditioner → ADC → Processor
Smart: Sensor + Conditioning + ADC + Processor + Comm → Digital Bus
B. Key Components
1. Sensing element: Customized for application
2. ASIC: Application-specific integrated circuit
3. MCU: 8-bit to 32-bit depending on complexity
4. Memory: Configuration, calibration, data logging
5. Communication: Wired (Fieldbus, Ethernet) or wireless
C. Power Management
1. Energy harvesting: Piezoelectric, thermal, RF
2. Low-power modes: Sleep, deep sleep, standby
3. Power gating: Turn off unused blocks
4. Dynamic voltage scaling: Adjust based on workload
II. Intelligent Functions
A. Self-Calibration
1. Auto-zero: Remove offset
2. Auto-gain: Adjust span
3. Multi-point: Polynomial correction
4. Reference-based: Internal/external references
B. Self-Diagnosis
1. Continuity check: Sensor element
2. Plausibility check: Compare with limits/models
3. Cross-validation: Multiple sensors
4. Lifetime prediction: Usage monitoring
C. Data Processing
1. Filtering: Digital filters (FIR, IIR)
2. Compensation: Temperature, nonlinearity
3. Feature extraction: RMS, FFT, statistical
4. Data reduction: Compression, event detection
D. Communication Protocols
Protocol Speed Distance Power Typical Use
4-20mA/HART 1.2kbps 2km Medium Process industry
Factory
Profibus/PA 31.25kbps 1.9km Medium
automation
Foundation
31.25kbps 1.9km Medium Process control
HART
Automotive,
CAN/CANopen 1Mbps 40m Low
robotics
IO-Link 230kbps 20m Low Factory sensors
Wireless HART 250kbps 100m Low Wireless networks
0.3- Very IoT, remote
LoRaWAN 10km
50kbps low monitoring
III. Smart Actuators
A. Architecture
1. Command interface: Setpoint, mode, configuration
2. Local control: PID, fuzzy logic, state machine
3. Feedback sensing: Position, force, temperature
4. Safety functions: Limit switches, torque limiting
B. Advanced Features
1. Adaptive control: Learn system characteristics
2. Predictive maintenance: Monitor wear, predict failure
3. Energy optimization: Minimize consumption
4. Fault tolerance: Continue with degraded performance
C. Applications
1. Industrial valves: Flow control with diagnostics
2. Robotic joints: Force control, collision detection
3. HVAC dampers: Pressure balancing, energy saving
4. Automotive: Electronic throttle, active suspension