MODULE III: Electric, Magnetic & Mechanical Sensors & Actuators
1. Capacitive Sensors & Actuators
I. Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors operate by detecting changes in electrical capacitance between
two conductive plates when a physical quantity alters the geometry or dielectric
properties of the capacitor.
A. Operating Principle
Capacitance is given by:
C=εrε0AdC=dεrε0A
where:
AA = overlapping area of plates
dd = distance between plates
εrεr = relative permittivity of dielectric material
ε0ε0 = permittivity of free space (8.854×10−12 F/m8.854×10−12F/m)
B. Sensing Mechanisms
Sensors are designed to vary one of three parameters:
Mechanism Parameter Changed Application Example
Change in Distance dd Displacement, pressure, accelerometers
Change in Area AA Angular rotation sensors
Change in Dielectric εrεr Liquid level, humidity, proximity
C. Signal Conditioning
Capacitance changes are converted to measurable signals using:
Bridge circuits (AC excitation)
Oscillator circuits (frequency changes with capacitance)
Charge amplifiers (convert capacitance to voltage)
D. Applications
Industrial: Position sensing, thickness measurement
Consumer: Touchscreens, proximity detection
Automotive: Seat occupancy, fluid level sensing
Medical: Respiratory monitoring, heartbeat detection
II. Capacitive Actuators
These use electrostatic force between charged plates to create mechanical motion.
A. Operating Principle
Electrostatic force between parallel plates:
Fe=εrε0AV22d2Fe=2d2εrε0AV2
B. Characteristics
Fast response (microseconds)
Low power consumption
Limited force/distance (works best at micro-scale)
Requires high voltage (typically 10-100V)
C. Applications in MEMS
Optical: Micromirrors for projectors (DLP technology)
RF: MEMS switches for communication systems
Microfluidics: Pumps and valves for lab-on-chip devices
Precision positioning: Nano positioners for microscopy
2. Magnetic Sensors & Actuators
I. Hall Effect Sensors
A. Fundamental Principle
When current flows through a conductor in a perpendicular magnetic field, a
voltage develops across the conductor:
VH=RHIBtVH=tRHIB
where RHRH = Hall coefficient, II = current, BB = magnetic flux density, tt =
material thickness.
B. Material Considerations
Semiconductors (GaAs, InSb): High sensitivity but temperature-dependent
Metals: Low sensitivity but stable
Modern materials: Graphene, 2D materials for high sensitivity at room
temperature
C. Types of Hall Sensors
1. Linear sensors: Output proportional to magnetic field
2. Threshold sensors: Digital output (on/off)
3. Current sensors: Measure current via magnetic field around conductor
D. Practical Considerations
Temperature compensation needed for precision applications
Offset voltage can cause zero-field output
Packaging affects sensitivity and directional response
E. Advanced Applications
Electric vehicles: Motor control, battery monitoring
Industrial automation: Position sensing in harsh environments
Consumer electronics: Lid detection, joystick position
Medical: Flow meters, implantable device sensing
II. Other Magnetic Sensors
A. Magneto resistive Sensors
AMR (Anisotropic MR): 2-5% resistance change, low cost
GMR (Giant MR): 10-20% change, used in hard drive heads
TMR (Tunnel MR): 50%+ change, highest sensitivity
B. Fluxgate Magnetometers
Measure weak fields (Earth's magnetic field ~50μT)
Used in navigation, geological surveying
Consist of saturable core with excitation and sensing coils
C. SQUID Sensors
Superconducting quantum interference devices
Detect extremely weak magnetic fields (femtotesla range)
Medical: MEG (magnetoencephalography)
Geological: Mineral exploration
III. Magnetic Actuators
A. Solenoids
Construction: Coil with movable ferromagnetic plunger
Force equation: F=B2A2μ0F=2μ0B2A
Applications: Valves, locks, starters
B. Voice Coil Actuators
Coil moves in permanent magnetic field
Force: F=B⋅I⋅LF=B⋅I⋅L
Applications: Hard disk drives, speakers, precision positioning
C. Electric Motors
1. Brushed DC: Simple, low cost, needs maintenance
2. Brushless DC: Higher efficiency, longer life
3. Stepper motors: Precise positioning, open-loop control
4. Linear motors: Direct linear motion without gears
3. Specialized Sensors
I. Force & Pressure Sensors
A. Strain Gauge Fundamentals
Gauge factor: GF=ΔR/RεGF=εΔR/R
Typical values: 2.0 for metals, 100+ for semiconductors
Wheatstone bridge configuration: Maximizes sensitivity, compensates
temperature
B. Load Cell Designs
1. Bending beam: Low capacity, high sensitivity
2. Shear beam: Medium capacity, good side load rejection
3. Compression: High capacity, robust
4. S-type: Tension and compression
C. Pressure Sensor Types
Type Principle Range Applications
Piezoresistiv Silicon diaphragm with 1kPa- Automotive,
e diffused strain gauges 100MPa medical, industrial
Diaphragm deflection 100Pa- Low pressure, high
Capacitive
changes capacitance 10MPa stability
Charge generation Dynamic Vibration, impact,
Piezoelectric
under pressure only blast
Type Principle Range Applications
Wide Harsh environments,
Optical Interferometry, FBG
range EMI immune
II. Accelerometers
A. Mechanical Principles
Based on Newton's second law: F=maF=ma
Proof mass suspended by springs
Damping prevents oscillation
Displacement measured relative to housing
B. Transduction Methods
1. Piezoelectric:
o Charge output: Q=d⋅FQ=d⋅F
o AC response only (no DC)
o High frequency, high shock
2. Piezoresistive:
o DC response
o Lower frequency range
o Higher noise floor
3. Capacitive (MEMS):
o High sensitivity
o DC to medium frequency
o Low power, integrated electronics
C. Key Specifications
Range: ±1g to ±100,000g
Bandwidth: 0Hz (DC) to >10kHz
Noise density: μg/√Hz to mg/√Hz
Cross-axis sensitivity: <1% to 5%
D. Applications
Consumer: Screen rotation, gaming
Automotive: Airbag deployment, ESC
Industrial: Machine health monitoring
Aerospace: Navigation, structural testing
III. Gyroscopes
A. Physical Principles
1. Classical: Conservation of angular momentum
2. MEMS: Coriolis effect
Fc=2m(ω×v) Fc=2m(ω×v)
B. MEMS Gyroscope Operation
1. Drive mode: Proof mass oscillates at resonance
2. Sense mode: Rotation causes perpendicular motion
3. Detection: Capacitive sensing of Coriolis-induced motion
C. Performance Parameters
Angle random walk: °/√hr
Bias stability: °/hr
Scale factor accuracy: % of reading
Bandwidth: Hz
D. Applications by Grade
Grade Bias Stability Application
Consumer 10-1000°/hr Smartphones, gaming
Industrial 1-10°/hr Robotics, platform stabilization
Tactical 0.1-1°/hr UAVs, guided munitions
Navigation 0.01°/hr Aircraft, marine navigation
Strategic 0.001°/hr Submarines, spacecraft