0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views8 pages

Capacitive & Magnetic Sensors Overview

This document covers various types of electric, magnetic, and mechanical sensors and actuators, focusing on capacitive, magnetic, and specialized sensors like force, pressure, and accelerometers. It details their operating principles, signal conditioning, applications, and characteristics. The document also discusses the principles of gyroscopes and their performance parameters across different application grades.

Uploaded by

nptelrakha
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views8 pages

Capacitive & Magnetic Sensors Overview

This document covers various types of electric, magnetic, and mechanical sensors and actuators, focusing on capacitive, magnetic, and specialized sensors like force, pressure, and accelerometers. It details their operating principles, signal conditioning, applications, and characteristics. The document also discusses the principles of gyroscopes and their performance parameters across different application grades.

Uploaded by

nptelrakha
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

MODULE III: Electric, Magnetic & Mechanical Sensors & Actuators

1. Capacitive Sensors & Actuators


I. Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors operate by detecting changes in electrical capacitance between
two conductive plates when a physical quantity alters the geometry or dielectric
properties of the capacitor.
A. Operating Principle
Capacitance is given by:
C=εrε0AdC=dεrε0A
where:
 AA = overlapping area of plates
 dd = distance between plates
 εrεr = relative permittivity of dielectric material
 ε0ε0 = permittivity of free space (8.854×10−12 F/m8.854×10−12F/m)
B. Sensing Mechanisms
Sensors are designed to vary one of three parameters:

Mechanism Parameter Changed Application Example

Change in Distance dd Displacement, pressure, accelerometers

Change in Area AA Angular rotation sensors

Change in Dielectric εrεr Liquid level, humidity, proximity

C. Signal Conditioning
Capacitance changes are converted to measurable signals using:
 Bridge circuits (AC excitation)
 Oscillator circuits (frequency changes with capacitance)
 Charge amplifiers (convert capacitance to voltage)
D. Applications
 Industrial: Position sensing, thickness measurement
 Consumer: Touchscreens, proximity detection
 Automotive: Seat occupancy, fluid level sensing
 Medical: Respiratory monitoring, heartbeat detection
II. Capacitive Actuators
These use electrostatic force between charged plates to create mechanical motion.
A. Operating Principle
Electrostatic force between parallel plates:
Fe=εrε0AV22d2Fe=2d2εrε0AV2
B. Characteristics
 Fast response (microseconds)
 Low power consumption
 Limited force/distance (works best at micro-scale)
 Requires high voltage (typically 10-100V)
C. Applications in MEMS
 Optical: Micromirrors for projectors (DLP technology)
 RF: MEMS switches for communication systems
 Microfluidics: Pumps and valves for lab-on-chip devices
 Precision positioning: Nano positioners for microscopy

2. Magnetic Sensors & Actuators


I. Hall Effect Sensors
A. Fundamental Principle
When current flows through a conductor in a perpendicular magnetic field, a
voltage develops across the conductor:
VH=RHIBtVH=tRHIB
where RHRH = Hall coefficient, II = current, BB = magnetic flux density, tt =
material thickness.
B. Material Considerations
 Semiconductors (GaAs, InSb): High sensitivity but temperature-dependent
 Metals: Low sensitivity but stable
 Modern materials: Graphene, 2D materials for high sensitivity at room
temperature
C. Types of Hall Sensors
1. Linear sensors: Output proportional to magnetic field
2. Threshold sensors: Digital output (on/off)
3. Current sensors: Measure current via magnetic field around conductor
D. Practical Considerations
 Temperature compensation needed for precision applications
 Offset voltage can cause zero-field output
 Packaging affects sensitivity and directional response
E. Advanced Applications
 Electric vehicles: Motor control, battery monitoring
 Industrial automation: Position sensing in harsh environments
 Consumer electronics: Lid detection, joystick position
 Medical: Flow meters, implantable device sensing
II. Other Magnetic Sensors
A. Magneto resistive Sensors
 AMR (Anisotropic MR): 2-5% resistance change, low cost
 GMR (Giant MR): 10-20% change, used in hard drive heads
 TMR (Tunnel MR): 50%+ change, highest sensitivity
B. Fluxgate Magnetometers
 Measure weak fields (Earth's magnetic field ~50μT)
 Used in navigation, geological surveying
 Consist of saturable core with excitation and sensing coils
C. SQUID Sensors
 Superconducting quantum interference devices
 Detect extremely weak magnetic fields (femtotesla range)
 Medical: MEG (magnetoencephalography)
 Geological: Mineral exploration
III. Magnetic Actuators
A. Solenoids
 Construction: Coil with movable ferromagnetic plunger
 Force equation: F=B2A2μ0F=2μ0B2A
 Applications: Valves, locks, starters
B. Voice Coil Actuators
 Coil moves in permanent magnetic field
 Force: F=B⋅I⋅LF=B⋅I⋅L
 Applications: Hard disk drives, speakers, precision positioning
C. Electric Motors
1. Brushed DC: Simple, low cost, needs maintenance
2. Brushless DC: Higher efficiency, longer life
3. Stepper motors: Precise positioning, open-loop control
4. Linear motors: Direct linear motion without gears
3. Specialized Sensors
I. Force & Pressure Sensors
A. Strain Gauge Fundamentals
 Gauge factor: GF=ΔR/RεGF=εΔR/R
 Typical values: 2.0 for metals, 100+ for semiconductors
 Wheatstone bridge configuration: Maximizes sensitivity, compensates
temperature
B. Load Cell Designs
1. Bending beam: Low capacity, high sensitivity
2. Shear beam: Medium capacity, good side load rejection
3. Compression: High capacity, robust
4. S-type: Tension and compression
C. Pressure Sensor Types

Type Principle Range Applications

Piezoresistiv Silicon diaphragm with 1kPa- Automotive,


e diffused strain gauges 100MPa medical, industrial

Diaphragm deflection 100Pa- Low pressure, high


Capacitive
changes capacitance 10MPa stability

Charge generation Dynamic Vibration, impact,


Piezoelectric
under pressure only blast
Type Principle Range Applications

Wide Harsh environments,


Optical Interferometry, FBG
range EMI immune

II. Accelerometers
A. Mechanical Principles
Based on Newton's second law: F=maF=ma
 Proof mass suspended by springs
 Damping prevents oscillation
 Displacement measured relative to housing
B. Transduction Methods
1. Piezoelectric:
o Charge output: Q=d⋅FQ=d⋅F
o AC response only (no DC)
o High frequency, high shock
2. Piezoresistive:
o DC response
o Lower frequency range
o Higher noise floor
3. Capacitive (MEMS):
o High sensitivity
o DC to medium frequency
o Low power, integrated electronics
C. Key Specifications
 Range: ±1g to ±100,000g
 Bandwidth: 0Hz (DC) to >10kHz
 Noise density: μg/√Hz to mg/√Hz
 Cross-axis sensitivity: <1% to 5%
D. Applications
 Consumer: Screen rotation, gaming
 Automotive: Airbag deployment, ESC
 Industrial: Machine health monitoring
 Aerospace: Navigation, structural testing
III. Gyroscopes
A. Physical Principles
1. Classical: Conservation of angular momentum
2. MEMS: Coriolis effect
Fc=2m(ω×v) Fc=2m(ω×v)
B. MEMS Gyroscope Operation
1. Drive mode: Proof mass oscillates at resonance
2. Sense mode: Rotation causes perpendicular motion
3. Detection: Capacitive sensing of Coriolis-induced motion
C. Performance Parameters
 Angle random walk: °/√hr
 Bias stability: °/hr
 Scale factor accuracy: % of reading
 Bandwidth: Hz
D. Applications by Grade
Grade Bias Stability Application

Consumer 10-1000°/hr Smartphones, gaming

Industrial 1-10°/hr Robotics, platform stabilization

Tactical 0.1-1°/hr UAVs, guided munitions

Navigation 0.01°/hr Aircraft, marine navigation

Strategic 0.001°/hr Submarines, spacecraft

You might also like