Module 4
Modern Electronics and Its
Applications
Rashid M E
Assistant Professor in Electronics
College of Engg, Karunagappally
Module 4 : Syllabus
Modern Electronics and its applications:
General block diagram of a Communication system, Block diagram of Fiber
optic Communication system, Concept of AM and FM (No derivation
required), Block diagram of AM and FM super-heterodyne receiver, Basic
concepts of Wired and Wireless communication, Block diagram of GSM,
Comparison of 3G, 4G, 5G and 6G communication technologies
Block diagrams of Electronic instrumentation system, Digital Multimeter,
Function generator, Introduction to CRO and Lissajous patterns
Applications of modern electronics – IoT based smart homes, healthcare and
agriculture (Case study only)
Digital Multimeter
• A digital multimeter's role is to measure and diagnose a variety of
electrical properties, including voltage, current, and resistance, which
are crucial for troubleshooting and verifying electronic circuits and
devices. It combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and
ohmmeter into a single, easy-to-use device with a digital screen that
displays accurate readings.
• A digital multimeter works by converting the analog input signal
(voltage, current, or resistance) into a DC voltage within a specific
range, which is then converted into a digital value by an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) and displayed on a screen.
• The user selects the measurement type and range with a rotary
switch, connects probes to the device under test.
Block Diagram
Key components and their roles
•Probes/Leads:
Connect the multimeter to the circuit under test. One is the common (black) and the
other is positive (red).
•Rotary switch:
The user turns this to select the measurement type (voltage, current, resistance) and
the desired range.
•Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC):
Converts the conditioned analog signal from the circuit into a digital number that can
be displayed.
•Digital Display:
An LCD or LED screen that shows the measurement results in digits, making them easy
to read.
Core functions of Digital Multimeter
Voltage measurement:
The input AC or DC voltage is first attenuated (reduced) to a suitable level. For AC
voltage, it's converted to a DC signal before being sent to the ADC.
Current measurement:
The multimeter is placed in series with the circuit. A current to voltage
converter converts the current into a voltage. For AC current, the voltage so
obtained is converted to a DC signal before being sent to the ADC.
Resistance measurement:
A constant current is sent through the unknown resistance, and the resulting
voltage drop across the resistor is measured. The DMM uses this voltage and
the known current to calculate and display the resistance.
Continuity testing:
This function uses a low voltage to check if a circuit is complete. If the circuit is
complete, the multimeter will beep and display a very low resistance, typically
around 0 ohms.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) includes a vertical system, a
horizontal system, the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display, and a power
supply.
• The vertical system amplifies the input signal, while the horizontal
system generates and amplifies a time-base (sweep) signal.
• The CRT uses an electron beam, deflected by these signals, to
produce a visible waveform on a phosphor screen.
Block Diagram of CRO
Different parts of the CRO are:
•Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): The core of the CRO, a vacuum tube where the waveform is
displayed.
•Electron Gun: Generates and forms a sharp, high-velocity electron beam.
•Deflection Plates: Two sets of plates—vertical and horizontal—that deflect the
electron beam in response to the amplified input and time-base signals.
•Phosphor Screen: A screen coated with a phosphor material that glows when the
electron beam strikes it.
•Vertical Deflection System: Processes the input signal to control the vertical position
of the beam.
•Input Attenuator: Reduces the amplitude of the input signal to a safe level for
the vertical amplifier.
•Vertical Amplifier: Amplifies the attenuated signal to a sufficient level to deflect
the electron beam vertically.
•Delay Line: Delays the vertical signal so that it arrives at the vertical deflection
plates at the same time as the horizontal signal, ensuring a synchronized display.
•Horizontal Deflection System: Processes the time-base signal to
control the horizontal movement of the beam.
•Trigger Circuit: Synchronizes the start of the sweep with the input
signal to create a stable, non-drifting display.
•Time-Base Generator: Creates a sawtooth wave that provides a
constant horizontal sweep velocity across the screen.
•Horizontal Amplifier: Amplifies the sawtooth signal to drive the
horizontal deflection plates.
•Power Supply: Provides the necessary low-voltage DC for the circuits
and high-voltage DC for the CRT's electron gun and accelerating
anodes.
Lissajous Patterns in CRO
• Lissajous Patterns Definition: Lissajous patterns in CRO are the
shapes formed on the CRO screen when sinusoidal voltages are
applied to its deflection plates.
• Phase Difference Analysis: The phase difference between two
sinusoidal signals of the same frequency is determined using the
shape of Lissajous patterns.
• Frequency Ratio Calculation: The ratio of frequencies of signals
applied to the CRO’s deflection plates is found by counting the
tangencies of the Lissajous pattern.
• When two sinusoidal signals of same frequency and magnitude are
applied two both pairs of deflecting plates of CRO, the Lissajous
pattern changes with change of phase difference between signals
applied to the CRO.
• For different value of phase differences, the shape of Lissajous
patterns is shown in figure below:
00 300 450
600 900 1200
1500 1800
Case 1: When, 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o
• In this case, the Lissajous pattern is of the shape of Ellipse having
major axis passing through origin from first quadrant to third
quadrant.
• Consider an example for 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o, as shown. In
this condition the phase difference will be,
Case 2: When 90o < ø < 180o or 180o < ø < 270o
• In this case, the Lissajous Pattern is of the shape of Ellipse having
major axis passing through origin from second quadrant to fourth
quadrant.
• Consider an example for When, 90o < ø < 180o or 180o < ø < 270o, as
shown. In this condition the phase difference will be,
Function Generator
• A function generator's primary role is to create and provide various
electrical waveforms such as sine, square, triangle, sawtooth waves
etc. for testing electronic circuits.
Block diagram of Function Generator
• A function generator's block diagram includes a frequency control
network, two constant current sources, an integrator, a voltage
comparator, a shaping circuit, and output amplifiers.
• The process begins with a constant current from one source charging
an integrator creating a triangular wave. When the triangle wave
reaches a set voltage, the comparator output becomes high, which
will turn on a second, opposite current source, causing the
integrator's output to ramp down linearly. This cycle repeats to create
a triangle wave.
• Triangular wave is then shaped into a sine wave and squared by the
comparator to produce a square wave.
• Block diagram components and explanation
• Frequency Control Network: This network regulates the magnitude
of the current sources, which in turn controls the slope of the
integrator's output and therefore the frequency of the waveforms.
• Constant Current Sources: Two sources are used: one supplies a
constant current to charge the integrator and the other supplies a
reverse current to discharge it.
• Integrator: This circuit, often an operational amplifier, integrates the
current from the constant current sources. As current flows in, the
output voltage increases linearly. When the current source switches,
the output voltage decreases linearly, producing a triangular
waveform.
• Voltage Comparator: This circuit compares the output voltage of the
integrator to two predetermined voltage levels. When the voltage reaches
the maximum, comparator output becomes high. When the voltage
becomes minimum value, comparator output becomes low. Thus, a square
wave is generated.
• This square wave is applied to the current sources and when the
comparator output is high, current source 2 is turned ON causing integrator
output to ramp down linearly( since the current is now negative). When
the output of comparator is high, current source 1 is turned ON causing
integrator’s output increases linearly (since the current is now positive).
• Shaping Circuit: This circuit takes the triangular wave and converts it into a
sine wave through a resistance-diode network.
• Output Amplifiers: These amplifiers provide the final output waveforms to
the user.