INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY ARUSHA

Module Name: Foundations of Mathematical Analysis

Module Codes: CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313
Programmes: 1. Bachelor of Computer Science (BCS I)
2. Bachelor of Information Technology (BIT I)
3. Bachelor of Science in Cybersecurity BCSe II)

Semester 1
Lecture Notes
Topic 1: Application of Algebraic Methods

Introduction.

Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe relationship between
things that vary. In algebra, variables and mathematical symbols are used to represent quantities in
mathematical expressions and equations. These variables and symbols can be manipulated using rules to
derive a relationship or solve for required results.

Algebra is one of the building blocks of mathematics and it is widely used in our day-to-day life. It also plays
a very significant role in understanding other advanced branches of mathematics such as geometry,
calculus, et cetera.

Algebraic Equations.

An algebraic equation is an equation that includes one or more variables. Sentences expressing
relationships or mathematical problems can be expressed in the form of equations using algebra. The given
sentences in the following table can be expressed as algebraic equations using variables and mathematical
symbols to show the relationship involved.

Sentence Algebraic Equation

A number increased by 5 is 12 x + 5 = 12
A number divided by 4 is 8 y÷4=8
Twice a number is 18 2n = 18
Five less than a number is ten x – 5 =10
Note: The letters x, y and n are referred to as variables

Formulation of algebraic equations is done by using variables, mathematical operators and numbers to
show the relationship between variables involved. As noted before algebraic equations can involve more
than one variable. A relationship between two quantities can be expressed as an equation in two variables.

Examples of equations with two variables:

(i) y – 2x = 5 (iv) d = 7 + 0.5t
(ii) s = 3t + 2 (v) y = x2 +
(iii) 3y + 5x = 1 4xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxx
Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by
Nimrod Foya 1
 (vi) y2 + x2 = 0

A relationship between three quantities can be expressed as an equation in three variables.

Examples of equations with three variables:

(i) y = a + b (iv) v = bh
(ii) y = 7x – 5z (v) x2 + y2 + z2 = 0
(iii) x + 2y + z = 0 (vi) 2l + 2w = p

Linear Systems in Two Variables.

A linear system of two equations with two variables is any system that can be written in the form

a11x + a12y = p
a21x + a22y = q

where a11, a12, a21, a22, p and q are real numbers, and x and y are variables.
The system is called linear if the variables are only to the first power.

A solution to a linear system of two equations is a value of x and a value of y that, when substituted into the
equations, satisfies both equations at the same time. The solution to the system is actually the coordinates
of the point where the two lines intersect when represented by a graph. Methods for solving linear
equations with two variables are illustrated below.

(i) Method of Substitution.

In this method we solve one of the equations for one of the variables and substitute this into the other
equation.
a11x + a12y = p …… (i)
a21x + a22y = q …… (ii)

Consider equation (i). Solve for the variable x to obtain x = (p - a12y)/a11. Now substitute this into equation
(ii):
a21(p - a12y)/a11 + a22y = q
a21(p - a12y) + a11a22y = a11q
a21p - a21a12y + a11a22y = a11q
a11a22y - a21a12y = a11q - a21p
y = (a11q - a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12)

Now, plug the y value into one of the original equations and solve for x:
a11x + a12y = p
a11x + a12(a11q - a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12) = p
a11x + (a12a11q - a12a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12) = p
a11x = (a11a22p - a21a12p - a12a11q + a12a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12)
x = (a11a22p - a12a11q) / a11 (a11a22 - a21a12)
x = (a22p - a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12)
So the solution is x = (a22p - a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12) and y = (a11q - a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12).

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 2
Note that you can as well start with the variable y in equation (i) and then proceed in a similar manner as
shown above.

Example:
Solve the following system of linear equations.
3x – y = 7 …… (i)
2x + 3y = 1 …… (ii)

Solution: Consider equation (i): y = 3x – 7. Now substitute this into equation (ii) to obtain
2x + 3(3x – 7) = 1
2x + 9x – 21 = 1
11x = 22
x=2
Now plug the x value into one of the original equations and solve for y:
3x – y = 7
y = 3x – 7 = 3(2) – 7 = -1
So, the solution is x = 2 and y = -1.
We can also write the solution as (x,y) = (2,-1)

(ii) Method of Elimination.

In this method we multiply one or both of the equations by appropriate number(s) (i.e. multiply every term in
the equation by the number) so that one of the variables will have the same coefficient with opposite signs.
Then we add the two equations together. One of the variables will be eliminated because the terms with
equal but opposite coefficient will add up to zero.

Let consider the previous pair of equations to see how it works.

a11x + a12y = p …… (i)
a21x + a22y = q …… (ii)

Multiply equation (i) by a22 and equation (ii) by -a12 and add them to eliminate the term in y:
a22a11x + a22a12y = a22p
-a12a21x - a12a22y = -a12q
Add: a22a11x - a12a21x = a22p - a12q
x = (a22p - a12q) / (a22a11 - a12a21)
Rearrange the denominator to obtain
x = (a22p - a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12)

Now, plug the x value in one of the original equations and solve for y:
a11x + a12y = p
a11(a22p - a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12) + a12y = p
(a11a22p - a11a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12) + a12y = p
a12y = p - (a11a22p - a11a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12)
a12y = (a11a22p - a21a12p - a11a22p + a11a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12)
y = (a11a12q - a21a12p) / a12 (a11a22 - a21a12)

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 3
 y = (a11q - a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12)
So the solution is x = (a22p - a12q) / (a11a22 - a21a12) and y = (a11q - a21p) / (a11a22 - a21a12).

Note that the same result is obtained using both substitution and elimination methods.

Example:
Solve the following system of linear equations.
5x + 4y = 1 …… (i)
3x - 6y = 2 …… (ii)

Solution: Multiply equation (i) by 3 and equation (ii) by 2:

15x + 12y = 3
6x – 12y = 4
Add up the sides of the equations respectively:
21x = 7
Solve for x to obtain x = 1/3
Now plug the x value into one of the original equations and solve for y:
3(1/3) - 6y = 2
1 – 6y = 2
y = -1/6
So, the solution is (x , y) = (1/3 , -1/6).

Linear Systems Having No Solution or Infinitely Many solutions.

We have seen that a system of linear equations in two variables represent a pair of lines. The lines either
intersect at one point, are parallel, or are identical. Thus, there are three possibilities for the solution to a
system of two linear equations:

Possible Solution Meaning

Exactly one ordered pair solution. The two lines intersect at one point.
No Solution. The two lines are parallel.
Infinitely Many Solutions . The two lines are identical.

A linear system with no solution is called an inconsistent system. If you attempt to solve such a system,
for example by substitution, you will eliminate both variables. An invalid statement, such as 0 = 12, will be
the result.

Example: Solve the system: 5x - 2y = 4 …… (i)

-10x + 4y = 7 …… (ii)

Solution: Multiply equation (i) by 2 and add to equation (ii):

10x - 4y = 8
-10x + 4y = 7
Add: 0 = 15

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 4
 We can see that 0 = 15 is a false statement. So, the system is inconsistent. Therefore, no solution
to the given linear system of equations.

A linear system that has at least one solution is called a consistent system. Lines that intersect and lines
that coincide both represent consistent systems. The equations in a linear system with infinitely many
solutions are called dependent. If you attempt to solve such a system, for example by substitution, you will
eliminate both variables. However, a true statement, such as 0 = 0, will be the result.

Example: Solve the system: x - 4y = -8 …… (i)

5x - 20y = -40 …… (ii)

Solution: Multiply equation (i) by -5 and add to equation (ii):

-5x + 20y = 40
5x – 20y = -40
Add: 0=0

We can see that 0 = 0 is a true statement. So, the system is consistent and also dependent.
Therefore, we have infinitely many solutions.

Linear Systems in Three Variables.

A linear equation with three variables represent a plane in three dimensional space. An equation such as
x + 3y – 2z = 8 is called a linear equation in three variables. In general, any equation of the form

ax + by + cz = p

where a, b, c, and p are real numbers such that a, b, and c are not all zero, is a linear equation in three
variables x, y, and z.

A solution of a system of linear equations in three variables is an ordered triple of real numbers that
satisfies all equations in the system. The method for solving systems of linear equations in three variables
is similar to that used on systems of linear equations in two variables. We apply the method of elimination
to reduce the system to two equations in two variables. We then use the method of substitution or addition
to eliminate another variable. The result is a single equation in one variable. This equation can then be
solved to get the value of the remaining variable. Values for the two other variables are found by back-
substitution.

The steps involved for solving linear systems in three variables:

1. Reduce the system to two equations in two variables. This is done by taking two different pairs of
equations and eliminating the same variable from both pairs.
2. Solve the resulting system of two equations in two variables using the method of substitution or
elimination. The result is an equation in one variable that gives the value of that variable.
3. Back-substitute the value of the variable found in step 2 into either of the equations in two variables
to find the value of the second variable.
4. Use the values of the two variables from steps 2 and 3 to find the value of the third variable by
back-substitution into one of the original equations.
5. Check the proposed solution in each of the original equations.

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 5
Example:
Solve the system: 5x – 2y – 4z = 3 . . . . . . . . . (i)
3x + 3y + 2z = -3 . . . . . . . . . (ii)
-2x + 5y + 3z = 3 . . . . . . . . . (iii)
Solution: Step 1. Reduce the system to two equations in two variables. We can do his by choosing any pair
of equations from the given system of equations. Let’s eliminate the variable z using
equations (i) and (ii).

5x – 2y – 4z = 3 . . . . . . . . . (i)
3x + 3y + 2z = -3 . . . . . . . . . (ii)

Multiply equation (ii) by 2 and add to equation (i).

5x – 2y – 4z = 3
6x + 6y + 4z = -6
Add: 11x + 4y = -3 . . . . . . . (iv)

Now eliminate the same variable from another pair of equations.

3x + 3y + 2z = -3 . . . . . . . . . (ii)
-2x + 5y + 3z = 3 . . . . . . . . . (iii)

Multiply equation (ii) by -3 and equation (iii) by 2 and add them.

-9x - 9y - 6z = 9
-4x + 10y + 6z = 6
Add: -13x + y = 15 . . . . . . (v)

Now, equations (iv) and (v) give us a system of two equations in two variables.

Step 2. Solve the resulting system of two equations in two variables.

11x + 4y = -3 . . . . . . . (iv)
-13x + y = 15 . . . . . . . (v)

Multiply equation (v) by -4 and add to equation (iv).

11x + 4y = -3
52x - 4y = -60
Add: 63x = -63
So, x = -1

Step 3. Use back-substitution to get the value of y from equation (iv).

11x + 4y = -3 . . . . . . . (iv)
11(-1) + 4y = -3
4y = -3 + 11 = 8
Y =2

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 6
 Step 4. Back-substitute the values of x and y into one of the original equations to get the value of
z. Let’s use equation (i).

5x – 2y – 4z = 3 . . . . . . . . . (i)
5(-1) – 2(2) – 4z = 3
-9 – 4z = 3
4z = -12
z = -3
So, the solution is the ordered triple (x,y,z) = (-1, 2, -3).

Step 5. Check the proposed solution by substituting the values for x, y and z into each of the three
original equations.

Just as with a system of two linear equations containing two variables, a system of three linear equations
containing three variables also has either no solution, or one solution, or infinitely many solutions. For a
system with no solution it means that the three planes represent an inconsistent system. Attempting to
solve an inconsistent system will lead to eliminating all three variables. The result will be a false statement,
such as 0 = 9.

Planes that intersect at one point and planes that intersect at infinitely many points represent consistent
systems. Systems of linear equations with infinitely many solutions are called dependent systems.
Attempting to solve a system with dependent equations algebraically will lead to eliminating all variables.
The result will be a true statement, such as 0 = 0.

Exercise.
Solve the following systems of linear equations.
1. x + 4y – z = 20 3. x + 2y + z = 4
3x + 2y + z = 8 3x - 4y + z = 4
2x - 3y + 2z = -16 6x - 8y + 2z = 8

2. 2x + 5y + z = 12 4. x + z = 3
x - 2y + 4z = -10 x + 2y - z = 1
-3x + 6y - 12z = 20 2x - y + z = 3

Matrix Method for Solving Systems of Linear Equations.

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns and placed in brackets. The
numbers inside the brackets are called elements of the matrix. Matrices are used to display information and
to solve systems of linear equations. Systems of linear equations can be represented in matrix format by
using matrix multiplication. For example, consider the system of linear equations

a11x + a12y = p
a21x – a22y = q

This system can be represented in matrix format by using matrix multiplication as

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 7
  a11 a12   x   p 
    =  
 a21 a22   y   q 

In general, a system of linear equations can be defined by matrix equation in the form

AX = B

where A is the matrix obtained from the coefficients of the variables, X is a column matrix obtained from the
variables, and B is a column matrix obtained from the constants.

Matrix representation of systems of linear equations provides a convenient way for solving systems. The
first step in solving a system of linear equations using matrices is to write the augmented matrix. An
augmented matrix has a vertical bar separating the columns of the matrix into two parts – the coefficients of
the variables to the left of the vertical bar and the constants to the right. If any variable is missing, its
coefficient is 0. The following are systems of linear equations and the corresponding augmented matrices.

System of linear equations Augmented Matrix

1. 4x – y = 6 1.
3x + 2y = 2
1 1 1 6 
2. x + y + z = 6  
2.  3 2  1 4 
3x + 2y – z = 4  3 1 2 11
3x + y + 2z = 11  

3. 3x1 – x2 + x3 + x4 = 5 3.
2x1 + 6x3 =2

Given augmented matrix, we can write the corresponding system of equations.

The process of solving a linear system of equations involves the transformation of the augmented matrix
into a matrix in a row-echelon form. A matrix with 1s down the main diagonal and 0s below the 1s is said
to be in row-echelon form. In general, the desired echelon form for systems with two variables and with
three variables is shown in the following augmented matrix.

Row-echelon form for systems Row-echelon form for systems

with two variables. with three variables.
1 a b c 
 
0 1 d e 
0 0 1 f 
 
The last row of these matrices gives us the value of one variable. The other variables can then be found by
back-substitution.

We produce a matrix in row-echelon form by performing row operations on the augmented matrix. These
row operations are just like what you do when solving a linear system by elimination method. The
difference is that we do not write the variables.

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 8
Row Operations.

There are three basic types of row operations that can be performed on the rows when transforming an
augmented matrix to row-echelon form. These are the following.

1. Interchange any rows.

2. Replace any row by a nonzero constant multiple of that row.
3. Replace any row by the sum of that row and a nonzero constant multiple of some other row.

The three types of row operations, when applied to the augmented matrix of a system of equations, result
in a new augmented matrix that represents a system of equations equivalent to the original. The row
operations can be performed repeatedly until we finally get augmented matrix in row-echelon form. This
augmented matrix in row-echelon form can easily be used to get solution to the given linear system of
equations.

The following notations are commonly used to denote row operations on matrices.

(i) Interchange the elements in the ith and jth rows: Ri  Rj.
(ii) Multiply each element in the ith row by a nonzero constant k: kRi.
(iii) Add k times the elements in row i to the corresponding elements in row j: kRi + Rj.

Example:
6 4  2 8 
 
Use the matrix  1 1 1 6  to perform the following row operations.
 3 1 2 11
 
(i) R1  R2 (ii) R1  1/2R1 (iii) R3  -3R2 + R3

Solution:
1 1 1 6 
 
(i) R1  R2  6 4  2 8 
 3 1 2 11
 
3 2 1 4 
 
(ii) R1  1/2R1  1 1 1 6 
 3 1 2 11
 
6 4  2 8 
 
(iii) R3  -3R2 + R3 1 1 1 6 
0  2 1  7
 

Steps for Solving Linear Systems Using Matrix Method.

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 9
The process that we use to solve linear systems using matrix row operations is often called Gaussian
elimination. The following are the steps involved.

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

2. Use matrix row operations to simplify the augmented matrix to one with 1s down the main diagonal
from upper left to lower right, and 0s below the 1s. That means transforming the augmented matrix
to row-echelon form.
3. Write the linear system of equations corresponding to the augmented matrix obtained in step 2
and use back-substitution to find the system’s solution.

Example:
Apply Gaussian elimination method to solve the following linear system of equations.
x - y + z = -4
2x - 3y + 4z = -15
5x + y - 2z = 12

Solution:
Write the augmented matrix of the given linear system.
1 1 1  4 
 
 2  3 4  15 
 5 1  2 12 
 
We perform row operations to transform the augmented matrix to row-echelon form.
1 1 1  4 1 1 1  4
   
R2  R2 + (-2)R1  0  1 2  7  R3  R3 + (-5)R1  0  1 2  7 
 5 1  2 12   0 6  7 32 
   
1 1 1  4 1 1 1  4 
   
R2  (-1)R2  0 1  2 7  R3  R3 + (-6)R2  0 1  2 7 
 0 6  7 32  0 0 5  10 
  
1 1 1  4
 
R3  (1/5)R3  0 1  2 7  . This matrix is in row-echelon form.
0 0 1  2 

So, to find solution, we first write the linear system of equations corresponding to the augmented
matrix obtained above.
x - y + z = -4
y - 2z = 7
z = -2
Now, since z = -2, we can perform back-substitution to get the values for the variables x and y.
y – 2(-2) = 7  y = 3. Similarly, x – 3 + (-2) = -4 x=1
So, the solution is (x, y, z) = (1, 3, -2).

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 10
Sometimes, it is advantageous to write a matrix in reduced row-echelon form. In this form, row operations
are used to obtain entries that are 0 above and below the leading 1 in a row. For example, lets consider the
row-echelon form obtained in the solution above.
1 1 1  4
 
0 1  2 7 
0 0 1  2 

To write this matrix in reduced row-echelon form, we proceed as follows.
1 0 1 3  1 0 0 1 
   
R1  R1 + R2  0 1  2 7  R1  R1 + R3  0 1  2 7 
0 0 1  2 0 0 1  2
   
1 0 0 1 
 
R2  R2 + 2R3  0 1 0 3  . This matrix is in reduced row-echelon form.
0 0 1  2
 
The advantage of writing the matrix in this form is that the solution to the system, x = 1, y = 3, z = -2, is
readily found without the need to back-substitute. Another advantage is that, the reduced row-echelon form
provides an efficient technique for finding inverse of a matrix.

When solving a linear system using matrix method, one of the three possible solutions may arise
depending on whether the system is inconsistent or not. In any case we must be able to state whether
there is no solution or infinitely many solutions. This is illustrated in the following situations.

Scenario 1.
1 0 0 1
 
Example:  0 1 0 5 
 0 0 1 2
 
Look at the given matrix. It is clear that there is one solution which is x = 1, y = 5, z = 2. So, the system is
consistent and has one unique solution.

Scenario 2.
1 0 0 4
 
Example:  0 1 0 7 
 0 0 0 2
 
If we try writing the solution to the given system we get x = 4, y = 7, 0 = 2. We can see that 0 = 2 which
comes from the last row is a false statement. This leads us to conclude that the system is inconsistent and
therefore has no solution.

Scenario 3.
1 0 5 2
 
Example:  0 1 3 2 
0 0 0 0
 

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 11
In this case, the last row gives us a statement 0 = 0 which is true. This is an indication that the system is
consistent and has many solutions. The solutions are written in terms of equations as follows:
x + 5z = 2  x = 2 – 5z
y + 3z = 2  y = 2 – 3z
z = any real number.
If we let z = t, where t is a real number, the solution becomes
x = 2 – 5t
y = 2 – 3t
z = t.
In this case, t is called a parameter.

Solving Quadratic Equations.

Here is a summary of important elements about quadratic equations and quadratic functions.
(i) A quadratic equation in x can be written in the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0, a≠ 0.
(ii) Some quadratic equations can be solved by factorization method.
Example: Solve 3x2 + 5x – 2 = 0
Solution: 3x2 + 5x – 2 = 0
(3x – 1) (x + 2) = 0
(3x – 1) = 0 (x + 2) = 0
X = 1/3, x = -2
The solutions are 12 and 1/3
Or the solution set is {-2, 1/3}
(iii) A polynomial function of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 is a quadratic function. Graphs of
quadratic functions have parabolic shape.
(iv) The real solutions of ax2 + bx + c = 0 correspond to the x-intercepts for the graph of the quadratic
function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. For example, the solutions of the equation 3x2 + 5x – 2 = 0 are -2 and
1/3. By drawing the graph of the quadratic function f(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2, we can show that the solution
appear as x-intercepts of the graph.
(v) Square root property.
If s is an algebraic expression and b is a non-zero real number, then s2 = b has exactly two
solutions:If s2 = b, then . We can solve some quadratic equations by using the square root
property.
Example: Solve 2x2 – 18 = 0
Solution: 2x2 – 18 = 0
X2 = 9
X = ±3

Some quadratic equations have solutions that are imaginary numbers.

Example: Solve x2+ 25 = 0
Solution: x2+ 25 = 0
X2 = -25

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 12
 x = 5i or x = -5i. Note:
Or x = ±5i
(vi) Completing the square.
If x2 + bx is a binomial, then by adding (b/2)2, which is the square of half the coefficient of x, a
perfect square trinomial will be obtained. That is x2 + bx + (b/2)2 = (x + b/2)2.

Example: What term should be added to the binomial x2 – 7x to become a perfect square?
Solution: Coefficient of x is -7.
Square of half of -7 is (-7/2)2 = 49/4. Add 49/4 to the binomial.
The result is a perfect square trinomial x2 – 7x + 49/4 = (x – 7/2)2.
We can solve any quadratic equation by completing the square.
Example: Solve the quadratic equation: x2 + 6x – 7 = 0.
Solution: x2 + 6x – 7 = 0
x2 + 6x = 7
x2 + 6x + 9 = 7 + 9
(x + 3)2 = 16
x + 3 = ±4
x = -7 or x = 1

If the coefficient of the x2-term in a quadratic equation is not 1, you must divide each side of the equation by
this coefficient before completing the square.

Example: Solve: 3x2 - 6x + 2 = 0.

Solution: 3x2 - 6x + 2 = 0
x2 – 2x + 2/3 = 0
x2 – 2x = -2/3
x2 – 2x + 1 = -2/3 + 1
(x – 1)2 = 1/3
x–1=± =±

x=1± =

Example: Solve the quadratic equation: 2x2 - 8x + 16 = 0.

Solution: 2x2 - 8x + 16 = 0
x2 - 4x + 8 = 0
x2 - 4x = -8
x2 - 4x + 4 = -8 + 4
(x – 2)2 = -4
x – 2 = ±2i
x = 2 + 2i or x = 2-2i
Or x = 2 ± 2i

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 13
 (vii) Quadratic formula.
The solutions of a quadratic equation in a standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a ≠ 0, are given by the
quadratic formula: . We can easily derive the quadratic formula starting with the
standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 and determining the general solution by using the method of
completing the square.

Polynomials.

Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided just as we do in numbers. Adding, subtracting
or multiplying polynomials are relatively easy to perform compared to division. Division of polynomials can
be performed by methods of long division or synthetic division. Method of synthetic division is more efficient
than the method of long division as we can see in the examples below.
Example: Divide 3x3 – 2x + 5 by x – 3
Solution: By method of long division.
3x2 + 9x + 25
x-3) 3x3 + 0x2 – 2x + 5
3x3 – 9x2
9x2 – 2x
9x2 – 27x
25x + 5
25x - 75
80
So, the quotient is 3x2 + 9x + 25 with remainder of 80

Solution: By synthetic method.

3)3 0 -2 5
Add
9 27 75

3 9 25 80 Remainder

Coefficients of
the quotient

Therefore, the quotient is 3x2 + 9x + 25 with remainder of 80

Example: Divide 5x3 – 6x2– 28x + 8 by x + 2by using the synthetic method.

-2 ) 5 -6 -28 8
-10 32 -8

Remainde
Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by
Nimrod Foya r 14
 5 -16 4 0

Coefficients of
the quotient
Coefficients of
So, the quotient is 5x2 - 16x + 4 with remainder of 0.
the quotient
Therefore, 5x3 – 6x2 – 28x + 8 = (x + 2) (5x2 - 16x + 4)

Solving Polynomial Equations.

Polynomial equation is an equation that has multiple terms made up of numbers and variables. The degree
of a polynomial equation is the same as the highest degree of any term in the equation. The solutions of a
polynomial equation are called the roots of the polynomial equation, or the zeros of the associated function
(they correspond to the points where the graph of the function meets the x-axis.) Note that a polynomial
equation of degree 1 is a linear equation. A polynomial equation of degree 2 is a quadratic equation.

We discussed solutions of quadratic equations in the previous sections. Some polynomial equations of
degree 3 or higher can be solved analytically. We can use technology such as graphing calculator to
support the analytic work and enable us to find accurate approximations of solutions of polynomial
equations that cannot be solved easily, or at all, by analytic methods.
There are several analytical methods for solving some polynomial equations of degree 3 or higher. The
approach normally depends on the type and degree of a polynomial equation. To get a better
understanding of the methods for solving polynomial equations of higher degree, visit the following page:
[Link] Students are required to read the document with
emphasis on the solution of polynomial equations of degree three (the area we are supposed to cover.)
Note the relevant concepts such as factor, root, exact or approximate solution, number of roots, Rational
Root Test, Descartes’ Rule of Signs, synthetic division, et cetera. Also work out the given examples to test
your understanding.

Lecture Notes for the Modules CSU07106 / ITU07106 / CYU07313 - Prepared by

Nimrod Foya 15