Introduction to Computer Network

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other

through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices
can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc.

The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data

stored in other devices over the network. These devices are often referred
as nodes.

There are five basic components of a computer network

COMUTER NETWORK

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from

one device to another device over a computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the
data to other device connected to the network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other
device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another
device we need a transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves
etc.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and
receiver, without a protocol two devices can be connected to each other
but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a reliable
communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set
of rules that are called protocol. For example, http and https are the two
protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data to internet,
similarly smtp protocol is used by email services connected to the
Features of a Computer Network

FEATURES

A computer network has following features:

Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms

of response time. The response time of sending and receiving data from
one node (computer in a computer network are often referred as node) to
another should be minimal.

Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a computer network is to

share the data between different systems connected with each other
through a transmission media.

Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the
backup of all the data that is to be shared over a network so that in case
of a failure it should be able to recover the data faster.

Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not

limit all the computers in a computer network to use same software and
hardware, instead it should allow the better compatibility between the
different software and hardware configuration.

Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs

the recovery from a failure should be fast.
Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data
transmitting over a network should be safe from unauthorised access.
Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the receiving node, which
means there should not be any loss of data during transmission.

Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it

should always allow to add new computers (or nodes) to the already
existing computer network. For example, a company runs 100 computers
over a computer network for their 100 employees, lets say they hire
another 100 employees and want to add new 100 computers to the
already existing LAN then in that case the local area computer network
should allow this.

A computer network is a collection of computers capable

of transmitting, receiving, and exchanging voice, data, and video
traffic. Because of the capability of computer networking, everything is
becoming more automated and capable of communicating and managing
itself.

History of Computer Network

 In his paper "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets",

Leonard Kleinrock introduced the notion of ARPANET (one of the
early computer networks) in 1961. The telephone network was the
most powerful network on the planet at the time. The telephone
network transmits data from a sender to a receiver using circuit
switching, which is a suitable choice given that voice is transferred
at a consistent pace between sender and receiver.
 Leonard Kleinrock published the first work on packet
switching methods. Kleinrock's work neatly illustrated the
efficiency of the packet-switching strategy employing queuing
theory for busy traffic sources. At the same time, Paul Baran began
researching the use of packet switching for secure voice-over
military networks at the Rand Institute.
  In 1969, the first packet-switched computer network and a direct
ancestor of today's public internet ARPANET was first used. It was
the first to use the TCP/IP protocol suite, which later evolved into the
internet. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a US
Department of Defence division,
developed ARPANET. ARPANET initially had four nodes, i.e., the
University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), and
the University of Utah. The first communication between UCLA and
SRI took place on October 29, 1969.

Roy Tomlinson invented email after UCLA was connected to Bolt Beranek
and Newman, Inc. (BBN) in 1972.

 A test VoIP connection was made in 1973 to officially

introduce VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) technology and its
capabilities. Until 1995, the first software allowed consumers to
make such a call.
 The first routers were deployed at Xerox in 1974, although they
were not real IP routers. The breakthrough in computer networking
was made possible by gateway devices and the Interface Message
Processor employed in the ARPANET. Bill Yeager, a Stanford
University researcher, invented the multiprotocol router in
the 1980s. Stanford IT personnel Leonard Bosack and Sandy Lerner
recognized the business possibilities of this router technology.
Leonard and Sandy built an updated version of Yeager's router,
which led to the establishment of Cisco Systems in 1984.

In 1973, in a Xerox research center in Palo Alto, California, Robert

Metcalfe and David Boggs created the first Ethernet prototype, which
carried data at 2.94 Mbps.

 In 1973, Following further research, Xerox patented Ethernet in

1975. In 1979, the IEEE established a standards committee with the
goal of pushing technology for widespread use. In the late 1980s
and early 1990s, the notion of a virtual LAN, or VLAN, was
developed to address the problem of rising broadcast traffic on LANs
with a significant number of connected devices. The IEEE
802.1Q standard was created to standardize VLANs and multi-VLAN
trunking over network uplinks.
 In 1974, Telenet was the first commercial ARPANET adaption. This
concept of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) was also
introduced. An ISP's primary goal is to provide its clients with a
reliable internet connection at a reasonable cost.
 As the internet became increasingly commercialized, more networks
sprang up worldwide. For communicating over the network, each
network uses a separate protocol. This made it impossible to join
many networks in a seamless manner. Tim Berners-Lee led a team
of computer scientists at CERN in Switzerland in the 1980s to
 establish the World Wide Web(WWW), a seamless network of various
networks.

Timeline of Computer Networks

 In 1957, Advanced Research Project Agency was formed by the US.

 In 1961, the idea of ARPANET was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock.
 In 1965, the term packet was used by Donald Davies.
 In 1969, ARPANET became functional, and the internet was officially
born, with the first data transmission sent between UCLA and SRI on
October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
 In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first email, and the foundation for
Wi-Fi was laid with the use of ALOHAnet.
 In 1973, Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox PARC, and the
first experimental VoIP call was made.
 In 1976, the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
 In 1978, Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks
developed.
 In 1981, Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in
RFC 791 in 1981.
 In 1983, DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
 In 1988, details about network firewall technology were first
published 1988.
 In 1996, IPv6 was introduced.
 In 1997, the first version of the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi was
introduced in June 1997, providing transmission speeds up to 2
Mbps.
 In 2002-2004, Web 2.0 was introduced

Computer Network Architecture

 Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and
logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

 The two types of network architectures are used:

Peer-To-Peer network

Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are
linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for
processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to
10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
 o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the
data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc.
from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For
example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends
the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the
client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore
we can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the
overall performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server
administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with
large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the
resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.

Computer Network Components

A computer network is build up from several components. These
components together makes it possible to transfer data from one device
to another and makes smooth communication between two different
devices. In this guide, we will discuss the main components of a computer
network.
Basic components of a computer network

Components

Server: Servers are computers that runs operating system and hold data
that can be shared over a computer network.

Client: A client is a computer that is connected to other computers in the

network and can receive data sent by other computers.

Transmission Media: All computers in a computer network are

connected with each other through a transmission media such as wires,
optical fibre cables, coaxial cables etc.

Network Interface card: Each system or computer in a computer

network must have a card called network interface card (NIC). The main
purpose of NIC is to format the data, send the data and receive the data
at the receiving node.

Hub: Hub acts as a device that connects all the computer in a network to
each other. Any request that comes from a client computer first received
by Hub and then hub transmit this request over a network so that the
correct server receives and respond to it.

Switch: Switch is similar to hub however instead of broadcasting a

incoming data request it uses the physical device address in the incoming
request to transfer the request to correct server computer.
Router: Router joins multiple computer networks to each other. For
example lets say a company runs 100 computers over a local area
network(LAN) and another company runs another LAN of 150 computers.
These both LANs can be connected with each other through a internet
connection which is provided by the router.

LAN cable: A wire that is used to connect more than one computers or
other devices such as printers and scanner to each other.

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers

that computer systems use to communicate over a network. It was the
first standard model for network communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model.
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize
and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and
troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and

telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international standard
in 1984.
OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that
directly serves the end user, down to the physical layer.

7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers

and email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and
receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples
of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines
how two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is
received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data
transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over
the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions,

between devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they
remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices
can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks
it into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for
reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data
that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow
control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the
receiving device, and error control, checking if data was received
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments
into network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end.
The other is routing packets by discovering the best path across a
physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically
Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into
frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed
of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network
protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media
Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and
define permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless
connection between network nodes. It defines the connector, the
electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is
responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s
and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their

network.
 Understand and communicate the process followed by components
communicating across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is
causing an issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and

networking software vendors:

 Create devices and software that can communicate with products

from any other vendor, allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product
operates – for example, only at the application layer, or across the
stack.

TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol is the set of communication protocols used in the internet and
similar computer networks. It provides end-to-end data communication. It
specifies all the processes involved in end-to-end data communication
which includes packetizing, addressing, routing, transmission. It contains
four layers and all the functionalities are organized in these four layers.
The four layers are shown in the diagram below
1. Link Layer - The link layer is the lowest layer in the TCP/IP model. It is
compared with the combination of the data link layer and the physical
layer of the OSI Model. They are similar but not identical. This layer is the
group of communication protocols that acts as a link to which the host is
connected physically. It is mainly concerned with the physical
transmission of the data.

The protocols used in this layer are:

 ETHERNET
 FDDI
 Token Ring
 Frame relay

2. Internet Layer - The Internet layer is compared to the network layer

of the OSI model. The main responsibility of the network layer is to
transport data packets from the source to the destination host across the
entire network. The transmission done by the internet layer is less
reliable.

The main protocols used in this layer are:

 IP - It is the primary protocol in the internet layer. It stands for

Internet Protocol. It is responsible for the transmission of data
packets from the source to the destination host. It is implemented in
two versions, IPv4 and IPv6.
 ARP - It stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its main
responsibility is to find the physical address of the host using the
internet address or IP address.
 ICMP - It is used for providing messages about errors to the host.
  IGMP - It is used for the transmission of data to a group of
networks. For eg. online streaming.

3. Transport Layer - The transport layer is responsible for the end-to-

end communication and delivery of the non-erroneous data. It provides
services that include connection-oriented communication, flow control,
reliability, multiplexing. This layer is similar to the transport layer of the
OSI model.

The main protocols of this layer are:

 TCP - It stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a connection-

oriented protocol and provides reliable communication and error-
free delivery of data from the source to the destination host. It is
optimized for accurate delivery than timely delivery. It is used by
many internet applications including World Wide Web(WWW), email.
 UDP - It stands for User Diagram Protocol. It provides simple, cost-
effective but unreliable service. It prioritizes speed over the
accuracy of delivery.

4. Application Layer - It is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP model. Its

functions are similar to the combination of the application layer, session
layer, and presentation layer. It is responsible for user interface
specifications. It contains communication protocols used in the process to
process communication across an Internet protocol computer network.

Some of the protocols used in this layer are:

 HTTP - It stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the foundation

of data communication for the World Wide Web. The hypertext
includes hyperlinks to other resources that can be accessed easily
by the user.
 SMTP - It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used for
sending and receiving electronic mails.
 TELNET - It provides a bidirectional interactive text-oriented
communication facility to the hosts over a network.
 FTP - It stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard
communication protocol used for transferring files from one
computer to another over a network.

Advantages : TCP/IP Reference Model

 Use of protocols implementation and their support.

 Each layer has its definite structure and functionality which
makes OSI model simple and easy to use.
 Use of layered architecture.
Disadvantages : TCP/IP Reference Model

 As some layers has multiple functionalities, it is more

complex than OSI Model where each layer has separate
functions and services.
 The TCP/IP reference makes use of protocols. But, in case of
replacement of any protocol, difficulty and issue might arise.

Difference between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Transmission
Full Form Open Systems Control
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet
Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

It is low in
Usage It is mostly used.
usage.

It is vertically It is horizontally
Approach
approached. approached.

Delivery of the Delivery of the

package is package is not
Delivery
guaranteed in guaranteed in
OSI Model. TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of
Replacing the
tools and
Replaceme tools is not easy
changes can
nt as it is in OSI
easily be done
Model.
in this model.

It is less reliable
It is more reliable
Reliability than TCP/IP
than OSI Model.
Model.

Computer Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical
topologies could be same or different in a same network.
Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer,
switches or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece
of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end
of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying
network and see each other as if they are connected directly.
Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or
[Link] topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data
at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD
technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is
one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not
affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can
make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in
only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the
terminator removes the data from the line.
Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to
point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of
the following:

 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

  Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole [Link], every

connection in the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which
employ one more backup ring.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple [Link]
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or
may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.
Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not
have direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every

other host in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2
connections are required. It provides the most reliable network
structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection
to every other host. Hosts connect to each other in some
arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use [Link] topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.
Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network
devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator
between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core
layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which
all nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between
[Link] to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire
network suffers [Link] it is not the single point of failure. Every
connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network
into unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring
topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end
[Link], if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it
represents Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every
link failure splits the network into two [Link] intermediate host
works as relay for its immediate hosts
Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said
to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all
the incorporating topologies.
The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining
topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain
topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and
networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet
is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared
communication path that works to share resources from one computer to
another, provided by or located on the network nodes.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain
information.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
6.
 Types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is
restrained to a single person, that is, communication between the
computer devices is centered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN
offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device
providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very
easy maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network
that connects computers through a common communication path,
contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two
or more computers connected over a server. The two important
technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges
up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and
low cost.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory,
college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of
computer network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges.
This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across
several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet
technology with a range from 1km to 5km.
Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost
and moderate cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings,
etc.
 Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of
computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance
through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan
area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology
with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is
difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a
large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not
restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can
also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with
each other with a range above 50km.
Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is
very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Parameter
s PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Local Campu
Personal Metropoli
Area s Area Wide Area
Full Name Area tan Area
Netwo Networ Network
Network Network
rk k

Bluetoot
Ether FDDI,
Technolog h, Ethern Leased Line,
net & CDDi.
y IrDA,Zig et Dial-Up
Wifi ATM
bee

Upto 1 – 5
Range 1-100 m 5-50 km Above 50 km
2km km

Transmiss Very Very High Average Low

Parameter
s PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

ion Speed High High

Privat Private or Private or

Ownership Private Private
e Public Public

Maintenan Very Modera

Easy Difficult Very Difficult
ce Easy te

Very Modera
Cost Low High Very High
Low te

Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver.

The switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a
dedicated path between sender and receiver.
 o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is
established then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the
connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication
takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send
the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then
the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for
voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching
technology

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a
single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a
physically separate set of crosspoints.
 o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch.
A crossbar switch is a metallic Crosspoint or semiconductor gate
that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For
example, Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and
nonblocking switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines.
The crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is

increased. Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The
solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the
smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication

channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
 o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds
during which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no
data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can
be transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate
nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available
in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it
to the next node. This type of network is known as store and
forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that
improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
 o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be
varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message
is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are
sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and
packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the
receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as
source address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent
to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the
packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless
switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through

a diagram:
 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver
respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a
connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent
for the termination

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do

not require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost
is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted.
This ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not
require any established path prior to the transmission, and many
users can use the same communication channel simultaneously,
hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

 o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those
applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very
complex and requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

What is Internet?

The Internet is often known as the World wide web. The Internet is a
network built by the cooperative connectivity of millions of computers that
are linked together. The Internet is made up of:

 People: The network is used and developed by people.

 Resources: A group of resources that can be accessed through those
networks.
 A setup for collaboration: It is a collaborative arrangement that
comprises members of the research and education committees from
all around the world.

What is Intranet?

An intranet is a private network that only employees of a company may

access. It's the most restrictive of the three networks. Intranets, like the
Internet, employ the HTTP protocol over TCP/IP protocol, web servers, and
web clients. Intranets differ from the Internet in that private servers are
not accessible to the general public. The users' limitations are
implemented through the usage of an internet firewall.

Companies use intranet so that they can store and share important
documents and lets teams use private messages and threads to
communicate better and collaborate on projects over a secure network. It
is only accessible to a small group of people. Intranets are mostly used to
offer access to data and programs on networked computers and servers
within enterprises and organizations.

What is Extranet?

An extranet is a type of network that allows external users to access an

organization's intranet. An extranet is similar to an intranet, except that it
is accessed through a Web portal. An intranet is a private network that is
only available to members of the same group, corporation, or
organization. Extranets are quickly becoming a popular way for business
partners to securely communicate information.

Internet Intranet Extranet

An intranet may be Extranets are mostly

Internet is open to
accessed via the used by businesses and
the public, but the
Internet, although its organizations to limit
other two are
authentication requires access to secret
heavily censored.
logging in. information.

It is owned by a
It is owned by no It is owned by single/
particular company/
one. multiple organizations.
organization.

Only members of the

Everyone who is Only members of the
organization and
linked has access organization have
external members with
to it. access to it.
logins have access.

Its goal is to Its goal is to Its goal is to allow

provide communicate members and external
information all information within the members to share
across the world. company. information.

It is used by the
It is used by the It is used by employees
members having login
public. of the organization.
information.

It is more cost- It is also less cost-

It is less cost-effective.
effective to utilize. effective.
Physical Layer in OSI Model

The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System

Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical
representation of the system. It consists of various network components such
as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer
sends data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s). The
physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are
encoded in a signal). The physical Layer is responsible for the communication of
the unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.

Functions Performed by Physical Layer

The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by
the Physical Layer of the OSI Model –
1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender
can send per second).
2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions
(Topology through which we can connect the devices with each
other).
5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and
Multi-Point configuration.
7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and
transmission medium.
8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.
9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
[Link] layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the
hardware layer is responsible for all the physical connection
establishment and processing too).
[Link] provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the
process of converting the data into radio waves by adding the
information to an electrical or optical nerve signal.
[Link] also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be
forwarded from one port (sender port) to the leading destination port.