1.

Links, Access Networks, and LANs

Learning objective:
Understand how links, access networks, and LANs connect users to the Internet.

Short definition/summary:

 Link = path between two devices (wired/wireless).

 Access network = connects end users to ISP.
 LAN = local high-speed network in small area.

Key points:

 Links can be Ethernet, fiber, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.

 Access networks provide the “last mile” (DSL, 5G, optical fiber).
 LANs connect devices in homes, offices, or labs.
 LAN devices = switches, routers.
 Together, they form the foundation of Internet access.

Worked example:
A student uses a laptop to open Google:

 Laptop connects via Wi-Fi (link).

 The request goes through the LAN switch.
 Router forwards to ISP using a fiber access network.
 ISP routes the request to the Internet.

Diagram (clear format):

[Laptop/PC] --(Wi-Fi / Ethernet Link)--> [LAN Switch] --LAN--> [Router]

|
|--(Fiber/DSL/5G Access
Network)--> [ISP] --> Internet

Diagram explanation (simple English):

 The laptop uses a Wi-Fi or Ethernet link to reach the switch.

 The LAN switch connects multiple local devices and passes data to the router.
 The router connects the LAN to the outside world.
 The router uses the access network (fiber, DSL, or 5G) to connect to the ISP.
 The ISP then delivers the data to the Internet.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Links, access networks, and LANs together build the base of modern communication. A link
is the physical or wireless connection between two devices, such as an Ethernet cable or Wi-
Fi signal. An access network is the ‘last mile’ connection that brings Internet service to
homes or offices using DSL, cable modem, optical fiber, or 5G mobile technology. A LAN,
or Local Area Network, connects multiple devices inside a small area like a home, office, or
university lab using Ethernet switches and Wi-Fi access points. LANs provide high-speed,
low-cost connectivity within the premises. For example, a laptop connects to the LAN
through Wi-Fi, the router forwards the request over an optical fiber access network to the
ISP, and the ISP connects to the Internet. This chain ensures that users can both communicate
locally and reach the global Internet.”

Quick revision checklist (with answers):

 What is a link? → A path between devices (e.g., Wi-Fi, Ethernet).

 What is an access network? → Connects end user to ISP (e.g., DSL, 5G).
 What is a LAN? → A local high-speed network inside a small area.
 Example? → Laptop → LAN switch → Router → ISP → Internet.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Give one example of an access network.

o Ans: DSL line, optical fiber, or 5G connection.
2. (6 marks) Explain the role of links, access networks, and LANs with an example and
diagram.
o Marking points: Link definition + example (2), Access network definition +
example (2), LAN definition + example (2).

2. Introduction to the Link Layer

Learning objective:
Understand the role of the Data Link Layer in communication.

Short definition/summary:
The Data Link Layer (DLL) is Layer 2 of the OSI model. It ensures error-free, orderly
delivery of frames between directly connected devices.

Key points:

 Works just above the Physical Layer.

 Groups raw bits into frames.
 Provides error detection (CRC, parity).
 Handles flow control.
 Uses MAC addressing for node-to-node delivery.
 Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, HDLC.

Worked example:
When a computer sends a file over Ethernet:

 The Physical Layer transmits bits.

 The Data Link Layer adds headers and checksums to make a frame.
 The receiver checks the frame for errors.
 If valid → accepts; if corrupted → discards or asks for retransmission.
Diagram:

Application
Transport
Network
Data Link ← Adds framing, error control, MAC addresses
Physical ← Sends raw bits (0s and 1s)

Diagram explanation:

 At the bottom, the Physical Layer only handles raw 0s and 1s.
 The Data Link Layer sits above it and makes sure those 0s and 1s are grouped as
frames, checked for errors, and delivered to the right device.
 Without the DLL, higher layers (like the Network Layer) would not know where a
message starts or ends.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model. It provides reliable node-to-node
delivery of data. Its main functions are framing (dividing bits into frames), error detection
and correction (using CRC or parity), flow control (ensuring the sender does not overload the
receiver), and hardware addressing using MAC addresses. This layer is implemented in
technologies such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), and HDLC. For example, when a
computer sends an Ethernet frame, the Data Link Layer adds a header with MAC addresses
and a CRC trailer. The receiving device checks the CRC to ensure the frame is correct. Thus,
the link layer ensures accurate and efficient delivery before data moves to the Network
Layer.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Which OSI layer? → Layer 2.

 Works above which layer? → Physical Layer.
 Main functions? → Framing, error control, flow control, addressing.
 Examples? → Ethernet, Wi-Fi, HDLC.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Which OSI layer performs framing and error detection?

o Ans: Data Link Layer (Layer 2).
2. (6 marks) Explain the functions of the Data Link Layer with an example.
o Marking points: Layer 2 (1), framing (1), error control (1), flow control (1),
addressing (1), examples (1).

3. Services Provided by the Link Layer

Learning objective:
List and explain the services the Link Layer provides to the Network Layer.
Short definition/summary:
The Data Link Layer provides services like framing, error control, and flow control to
ensure smooth communication.

Key points:

 Framing → converts bitstream into frames.

 Error detection/correction → checks and fixes errors.
 Flow control → prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.
 Reliable delivery → ensures frames are acknowledged.
 Half/full duplex → supports direction of communication.

Worked example:
In Ethernet:

 Sender breaks data into frames with headers and CRC.

 Receiver checks CRC → if correct, accepts; else, discards.
 Acknowledgments provide reliable delivery.

Diagram:

Sender Node ----> [Framing + Error Detection] ----> Channel ----> [Error
Check + Ack] ----> Receiver Node

Diagram explanation:

 The sender prepares data by adding frame boundaries and error detection bits.
 Data travels across the channel.
 The receiver checks errors and sends acknowledgment (ACK).
 This ensures the Network Layer receives error-free frames.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“The services of the Data Link Layer include framing, error detection and correction, flow
control, and reliable delivery. Framing organizes raw bits into identifiable frames. Error
control ensures corrupted frames are detected using methods like CRC or parity, and
corrected or retransmitted. Flow control makes sure a fast sender does not overwhelm a
slower receiver. Reliable delivery is provided using acknowledgment (ACK) and
retransmission (ARQ) techniques. Duplex services allow communication to be one-way
(half-duplex) or two-way (full-duplex). For example, Ethernet provides framing and CRC
error detection, while protocols like HDLC provide flow and error control. These services
make the Network Layer’s job easier by ensuring error-free delivery.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 What is framing? → Dividing bits into frames.

 What is flow control? → Matching sender to receiver speed.
 How is reliability ensured? → ACK + retransmission.
 Example of service? → CRC in Ethernet.

Practice questions:
 1. (2 marks) Name one service of the Data Link Layer.
o Ans: Framing / Error detection / Flow control.
2. (6 marks) Explain the services provided by the Data Link Layer with an example.
o Marking points: Framing (1), error control (1), flow control (1), reliability (1),
duplex (1), example (1).

4. Types of Errors
Learning objective:
Understand the types of errors that occur in data transmission.

Short definition/summary:
Errors are changes in transmitted bits due to noise or interference in the channel.

Key points:

 Single-bit error → Only one bit is flipped (0 → 1 or 1 → 0).

 Burst error → Multiple bits in sequence are changed.
 Causes → noise, attenuation, crosstalk, interference.
 Error handling is done at the data link layer.

Worked example:

 Sent: 1011001
 Received: 1010001 → one bit changed = single-bit error.
 Sent: 1101011011
 Received: 1111111111 → many bits changed in a row = burst error.

Diagram:

Transmitted: 1011001
Noise --> 1010001 (Single-bit error)

Transmitted: 1101011011
Noise --> 1111111111 (Burst error)

Diagram explanation:

 In the first case, one bit was flipped due to noise → single-bit error.
 In the second case, a sequence of bits got corrupted → burst error.
 Burst errors are more common in real networks than single-bit errors.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Errors in data communication occur when transmitted bits are altered by noise, attenuation,
or interference. Two common types are single-bit errors, where only one bit is changed, and
burst errors, where multiple consecutive bits are corrupted. For example, if 1011001 is sent
and 1010001 is received, a single-bit error has occurred. If several bits in a block change
together, it is a burst error. The Data Link Layer is responsible for detecting and correcting
these errors using techniques such as parity, checksum, and CRC. Correct handling of errors
ensures reliable communication between devices.”
Quick revision checklist (answers):

 What causes errors? → Noise, attenuation.

 What is a single-bit error? → Only one bit flips.
 What is a burst error? → Many consecutive bits flip.
 Which layer fixes them? → Data Link Layer.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Define burst error.

o Ans: A sequence of bits is changed due to noise.
2. (6 marks) Explain the types of errors with examples.
o Marking points: Causes (1), single-bit error (2), burst error (2), error handling
at link layer (1).

5. Redundancy: Detection vs. Correction

Learning objective:
Differentiate between error detection and error correction using redundancy.

Short definition/summary:
Redundancy means adding extra bits to detect or correct errors.

Key points:

 Detection → Receiver only identifies that an error occurred.

 Correction → Receiver identifies error and fixes it.
 Detection requires fewer extra bits.
 Correction requires more redundancy.
 Examples: CRC = detection; Hamming code = correction.

Worked example:

 Sent: 1011
 Add parity → 10111
 Receiver checks parity → detects error but cannot fix.
 With Hamming code → Receiver can detect and correct.

Diagram:

Sender: Data + Redundant bits → Transmission → Receiver

Receiver checks redundancy →
Error Detection → "Error found, request resend"
Error Correction → "Error found and corrected"

Diagram explanation:

 The sender attaches extra bits to the original message.

  The receiver checks them:
o In detection, it only finds the error and asks for retransmission.
o In correction, it directly fixes the error.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Redundancy is the concept of adding extra bits to data to ensure errors can be detected or
corrected. If used for detection, the receiver can only recognize that an error has occurred and
request retransmission, as in parity checks or CRC. If used for correction, the redundant bits
help the receiver locate and fix the error without retransmission, as in Hamming codes. Error
detection uses fewer redundant bits but cannot fix the problem directly. Error correction
requires more bits but is faster in cases where retransmission is not possible, such as satellite
communication. Both methods are essential to maintain reliability in data communication.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 What is redundancy? → Extra bits added.

 What does detection do? → Finds error, no fix.
 What does correction do? → Finds and fixes error.
 Example of detection? → CRC.
 Example of correction? → Hamming code.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Give one example of an error detection method.

o Ans: CRC or parity check.
2. (6 marks) Differentiate between error detection and correction with examples.
o Marking points: Definition of redundancy (1), detection (2), correction (2),
examples (1).

6. Forward Error Correction vs. Retransmission

Learning objective:
Understand the difference between correcting errors directly and retransmitting data.

Short definition/summary:

 FEC (Forward Error Correction): Receiver corrects errors itself.

 Retransmission (ARQ): Receiver detects error and asks sender to resend.

Key points:

 FEC uses redundant codes.

 ARQ uses acknowledgment (ACK) and negative acknowledgment (NAK).
 FEC = good for real-time or long-delay systems (satellite, live video).
 Retransmission = good for fast reliable systems (Ethernet, TCP).

Worked example:
  FEC: Satellite TV uses FEC codes to correct errors automatically (no time to resend).
 ARQ: In Ethernet, if a frame is corrupted, the receiver requests retransmission.

Diagram:

FEC: Sender → [Data + Redundant Code] → Receiver → Corrects errors

ARQ: Sender → Receiver → (Error detected) → NAK → Sender retransmits

Diagram explanation:

 In FEC, the receiver already has enough information to fix errors → no need to
contact sender.
 In ARQ, the receiver detects the error and asks the sender to resend the data.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Forward Error Correction and Retransmission are two different approaches to error
handling. FEC adds sufficient redundancy so that the receiver can directly detect and correct
errors without asking the sender to resend. This is used in real-time or long-delay systems,
such as satellite communication or live video, where retransmission is impractical.
Retransmission, also known as Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ), involves the receiver
sending acknowledgments (ACK) for correct frames or negative acknowledgments (NAK)
for corrupted frames. The sender then retransmits the erroneous data. This is efficient in fast
and reliable systems like Ethernet or TCP communication. Both methods are used depending
on whether speed or reliability is the main concern.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 FEC stands for? → Forward Error Correction.

 ARQ stands for? → Automatic Repeat reQuest.
 When use FEC? → Satellite, live video.
 When use ARQ? → Ethernet, TCP.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Which error control method is used in satellite communication?

o Ans: Forward Error Correction.
2. (6 marks) Differentiate between FEC and retransmission with examples.
o Marking points: FEC definition (2), ARQ definition (2), examples (2).

7. Error Detection and Correction Techniques

Learning objective:
Explain the different methods used to detect and correct errors in data transmission.
Short definition/summary:
Error detection and correction techniques use redundant bits and algorithms to identify and
sometimes fix errors in transmitted data.

Key points:

 Parity Check → adds a single bit, detects single-bit errors.

 Checksums → add values of data blocks, detects block errors.
 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) → powerful polynomial-based detection.
 Hamming Code → detects and corrects single-bit errors.
 FEC codes → correction without retransmission.

Worked example:
Sending 8-bit data 10110011:

 Add parity → 101100111.

 If a single bit flips, parity mismatch → error detected.
 With Hamming code, the system can locate and correct the flipped bit.

Diagram:

Sender: Data + Error Control Code → Transmission → Receiver

Receiver: Checks code → Detects/Corrects error → Passes clean data

Diagram explanation:

 The sender attaches an error control code (parity, checksum, CRC, or Hamming bits).
 The receiver uses the code to check for mismatches.
 If detection method → error is spotted, retransmission requested.
 If correction method → error is fixed directly.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Error detection and correction techniques are used by the Data Link Layer to ensure reliable
communication. Error detection methods include parity check, checksums, and cyclic
redundancy check (CRC). These methods can identify if an error occurred, but cannot always
fix it. Error correction methods like Hamming code or Forward Error Correction allow the
receiver to identify the exact error location and correct it without retransmission. For
example, parity bits can detect single-bit errors, CRC can detect burst errors, and Hamming
codes can both detect and correct errors. These methods are chosen based on the type of
communication channel and the level of reliability needed.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Which methods detect errors? → Parity, checksum, CRC.

 Which methods correct errors? → Hamming code, FEC.
 Which method is most powerful? → CRC.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Name one error correction method.

 o Ans: Hamming code.
2. (6 marks) Explain different error detection and correction techniques with examples.
o Marking points: Detection methods (2), correction methods (2), examples (2).

8. Parity Checks
Learning objective:
Understand how parity bits are used to detect errors.

Short definition/summary:
A parity check adds one extra bit to make the total number of 1s either even or odd.

Key points:

 Even parity → total 1s = even.

 Odd parity → total 1s = odd.
 Detects single-bit errors.
 Cannot detect burst errors.
 Very simple but limited method.

Worked example:
Data = 1011 (three 1s).

 For even parity, add 1 → 10111 (now four 1s).

 If one bit flips → parity mismatch → error detected.

Diagram:

Data: 1011
Parity (Even): 1
Sent: 10111
Received: 10101 → Mismatch → Error detected

Diagram explanation:

 The sender counts the 1s in the data.

 Adds a parity bit to make total count even or odd.
 The receiver checks the total number of 1s.
 If mismatch → error occurred.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Parity checking is one of the simplest error detection techniques. A single parity bit is added
to the data to make the number of 1s either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). At the
receiver, the number of 1s is counted. If it does not match the expected parity, an error is
detected. For example, data 1011 with even parity becomes 10111. If one bit changes during
transmission, the parity check will fail. Parity checks are simple and low-cost but can only
detect single-bit errors, not burst errors.”
Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Even parity means? → Total 1s = even.

 Odd parity means? → Total 1s = odd.
 What errors can it detect? → Single-bit.
 Can it fix errors? → No.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What type of errors can parity check detect?

o Ans: Single-bit errors.
2. (6 marks) Explain parity checking with example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), even/odd (2), limitation (1), example (2).

9. Checksumming Methods
Learning objective:
Learn how checksums are used to detect errors in blocks of data.

Short definition/summary:
A checksum is created by adding data words using 1’s complement arithmetic, and
transmitting the complement along with the data.

Key points:

 Used in IP, TCP, UDP protocols.

 Divides data into fixed-size words.
 Adds them using 1’s complement.
 Complement of sum = checksum.
 Receiver adds again → if all 1s, no error.

Worked example:
Data words (8 bits each):

1. 10101010
2. 11001100

 Sum = 10101010 + 11001100 = 101010110 (carry wrapped around).

 Complement → checksum.
 Receiver repeats the addition → verifies data.

Diagram:

Sender: Data1 + Data2 + ... → Sum → Complement → Send Checksum

Receiver: Data + Checksum → Add → If result = all 1s → No error

Diagram explanation:
  The sender adds all the data words.
 Produces a final sum → inverts it → checksum.
 The checksum is sent along with data.
 The receiver adds all values again, including checksum.
 If the result = all 1s, data is valid.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Checksumming is an error detection method commonly used in Internet protocols such as
IP, TCP, and UDP. The sender divides the data into equal-sized words and adds them using
1’s complement arithmetic. The complement of the sum is calculated and sent as the
checksum. At the receiver, the same addition is performed over the received data and the
checksum. If the final result is all 1s, the data is error-free; otherwise, an error is detected. For
example, if the sender adds 10101010 and 11001100, the complement of the sum is attached
as checksum. This method efficiently detects many types of errors in packet-based
communication.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Used in which protocols? → IP, TCP, UDP.

 What math is used? → 1’s complement addition.
 What indicates no error? → Result = all 1s.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Which Internet protocols use checksums?

o Ans: IP, TCP, UDP.
2. (6 marks) Explain the checksum method of error detection with example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), process (2), receiver check (1), example (2).

10. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Learning objective:
Explain how CRC works for error detection.

Short definition/summary:
CRC uses polynomial division to detect burst errors in transmitted data.

Key points:

 Data represented as binary polynomial.

 Divided by generator polynomial (G).
 Remainder = CRC bits.
 Receiver divides again → remainder = 0 → no error.
 Detects burst errors up to polynomial length.

Worked example:
Data = 1101, Generator = 1011.
  Perform binary division → remainder = 110.
 Append remainder → transmitted code = 1101110.
 Receiver divides by generator → if remainder = 0 → no error.

Diagram:

Sender: Dataword ÷ Generator → Remainder (CRC) → Codeword

Receiver: Codeword ÷ Generator → If remainder = 0 → Valid

Diagram explanation:

 The sender performs polynomial division and finds the remainder.

 This remainder (CRC bits) is added to the data.
 At the receiver, the same division is performed.
 If the remainder = 0, the data is valid; else, error detected.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is a widely used error detection method. The sender
represents the data as a binary polynomial and divides it by a predefined generator
polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic. The remainder of this division forms the CRC bits,
which are appended to the data before transmission. The receiver performs the same division
on the received codeword. If the remainder is zero, the data is considered error-free;
otherwise, an error is detected. For example, data 1101 with generator 1011 produces
remainder 110, which is added to the data. CRC is powerful because it can detect most burst
errors, making it suitable for Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other communication protocols.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 CRC uses what math? → Polynomial division.

 What is appended to data? → Remainder (CRC bits).
 When is data valid? → If remainder = 0.
 Used in? → Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What is CRC used for?

o Ans: Error detection in data transmission.
2. (6 marks) Explain CRC process with example.
o Marking points: Polynomial division (2), sender remainder (1), receiver check
(2), example (1).

11. Framing
Learning objective:
Explain how data is grouped into frames for reliable communication.

Short definition/summary:
Framing is the process of dividing a continuous stream of bits into manageable units called
frames for error detection and delivery.

Key points:

 Data is split into frames → easier handling.

 Each frame has header, data, trailer.
 Methods:
o Character Count (adds frame length in header).
o Byte Stuffing (uses special characters to mark start/end).
o Bit Stuffing (adds extra 0 after consecutive 1s).
 Frames allow error detection per block.

Worked example:
Suppose a message has 1000 bits. Instead of sending all at once, it’s split into 5 frames of 200
bits each. Each frame gets headers and trailers → easier error detection and retransmission if
one frame is lost.

Diagram:

| Header | Data | Trailer |

Frame = [Start bits] + [Payload] + [Error check]

Diagram explanation:

 The header contains addressing and synchronization info.

 The trailer usually carries error detection codes (CRC/parity).
 Frames ensure that the receiver knows where data starts and ends.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Framing is the process of dividing a stream of data into smaller blocks called frames for
reliable communication at the Data Link Layer. Each frame consists of a header, data field,
and trailer. Headers provide synchronization and addressing, while trailers contain error
detection codes like CRC. Framing methods include character count, byte stuffing, and bit
stuffing. For example, in bit stuffing, an extra 0 is added after five consecutive 1s to avoid
confusion with control flags. Framing ensures synchronization between sender and receiver,
allows error detection on individual frames, and improves efficiency by retransmitting only
the damaged frame instead of the entire data stream.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 What is framing? → Dividing bitstream into frames.

 What are frame parts? → Header, data, trailer.
 Methods used? → Character count, byte stuffing, bit stuffing.
 Why needed? → Synchronization and error detection.
Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Name two framing methods.

o Ans: Byte stuffing, bit stuffing.
2. (6 marks) Explain framing and its techniques with an example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), frame structure (1), methods (2), example (2).

12. Flow Control and Error Control Protocols

Learning objective:
Describe how flow and error control ensure reliable data transmission.

Short definition/summary:
Flow control prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver; error control ensures
corrupted frames are retransmitted.

Key points:

 Flow Control:
o Stop-and-Wait (one frame at a time).
o Sliding Window (multiple frames at once).
 Error Control:
o ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest).
o Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ.

Worked example:

 Sender uses Stop-and-Wait ARQ.

 Sends frame 1 → waits for acknowledgment (ACK).
 If ACK not received → retransmit.
 Prevents data loss and ensures correctness.

Diagram:

Sender -----> Frame -----> Receiver

Sender <----- ACK <------ Receiver
(If no ACK, retransmit)

Diagram explanation:

 The sender transmits one/more frames.

 Receiver replies with ACK (acknowledgment).
 If ACK not received in time → retransmission occurs.
 Sliding window allows multiple frames to be in transit for better efficiency.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Flow and error control protocols are mechanisms in the Data Link Layer that ensure reliable
communication. Flow control regulates the rate of data transmission so that the sender does
not overwhelm the receiver. Stop-and-Wait is the simplest method, while Sliding Window
improves efficiency by allowing multiple frames in transit. Error control uses ARQ methods,
where corrupted or lost frames are retransmitted. Examples include Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-
Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ. For instance, in Go-Back-N, if a frame is lost, all
frames from that point are retransmitted. These methods together provide reliability by
balancing speed (flow control) and correctness (error control).”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Flow control prevents? → Fast sender overwhelming slow receiver.

 Error control ensures? → Corrupted frames retransmitted.
 Two ARQ types? → Go-Back-N, Selective Repeat.
 Which is more efficient? → Sliding window.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What is ARQ?

o Ans: Automatic Repeat reQuest, retransmits lost/corrupted frames.
2. (6 marks) Explain flow control and error control with examples.
o Marking points: Flow control (2), error control (2), examples (2).

13. Noiseless Channels and Noisy Channels

Learning objective:
Differentiate between noiseless and noisy channel protocols.

Short definition/summary:
Noiseless channels assume error-free transmission; noisy channels consider real-world errors.

Key points:

 Noiseless protocols:
o Stop-and-Wait (sender waits for ACK).
o Sliding Window (multiple frames without waiting).
 Noisy protocols:
o Stop-and-Wait ARQ.
o Go-Back-N ARQ.
o Selective Repeat ARQ.
 Noisy channel protocols add error detection and retransmission.

Worked example:

 In noiseless Stop-and-Wait: sender sends one frame → receiver always gets it

correctly.
 In noisy Stop-and-Wait ARQ: if ACK not received, frame retransmitted.

Diagram:
Noiseless: Sender → Frame → Receiver (always correct)
Noisy: Sender → Frame (may corrupt) → Receiver
Receiver → ACK/NACK → Sender

Diagram explanation:

 Noiseless channels are ideal and assume no errors in transmission.

 Noisy channels represent reality where errors/losses happen.
 In noisy channels, ACK (acknowledgment) or NACK (negative acknowledgment) is
used to ensure reliability.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Noiseless and noisy channel protocols define communication reliability. In noiseless
channels, the transmission is assumed error-free. Protocols like Stop-and-Wait and Sliding
Window manage flow efficiently without worrying about errors. In real-world noisy
channels, errors occur, so additional error control is needed. Stop-and-Wait ARQ retransmits
a frame if acknowledgment is missing. Go-Back-N ARQ retransmits a sequence of frames if
one is lost. Selective Repeat ARQ retransmits only the corrupted frame. For example, in a
Wi-Fi network, data often travels through noisy channels, so ARQ-based protocols are used.
Thus, noiseless protocols focus only on flow, while noisy channel protocols combine flow
and error control.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Noiseless protocols → Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window.

 Noisy protocols → ARQ types (Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, Selective Repeat).
 Which channel is real-world? → Noisy.
 Which adds error detection? → Noisy channel protocols.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Give an example of a noisy channel protocol.

o Ans: Go-Back-N ARQ.
2. (6 marks) Differentiate between noiseless and noisy channels with examples.
o Marking points: Definition of noiseless (1), examples (2), definition of noisy
(1), examples (2).

14. HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)

Learning objective:
Explain the role and structure of HDLC protocol in reliable communication.
Short definition/summary:
HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-to-point and multipoint
links. It supports error detection, flow control, and reliable delivery.

Key points:

 Developed by ISO.
 Bit-oriented: works with streams of bits, not characters.
 Frame structure: Flag → Address → Control → Information → FCS → Flag.
 Modes: Normal Response, Asynchronous Response, Asynchronous Balanced.
 Uses CRC for error detection.

Worked example:
If two routers communicate using HDLC:

 Sender adds flags (01111110) to mark start and end.

 Address identifies the receiver.
 Control field shows frame type (e.g., data, acknowledgment).
 CRC detects transmission errors.

Diagram:

| Flag | Address | Control | Information | FCS | Flag |

Diagram explanation:

 Flag field (01111110) marks start/end of frame.

 Address shows destination.
 Control manages flow & error (e.g., sequence number).
 FCS (Frame Check Sequence) ensures correctness.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“HDLC is a bit-oriented data link control protocol developed by ISO. It provides reliable
communication through flow and error control. Each HDLC frame begins and ends with a
flag (01111110). The frame contains an address field, a control field for managing sequence
and acknowledgment, an information field for data, and an FCS for error detection using
CRC. HDLC supports both point-to-point and multipoint communication. It operates in
different modes such as Normal Response and Asynchronous Balanced. For example, when
two routers exchange data, HDLC ensures synchronization, checks for errors, and retransmits
corrupted frames if necessary. HDLC is widely used in WAN connections like leased lines.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 HDLC is bit- or character-oriented? → Bit-oriented.

 Start/end flag? → 01111110.
 Frame fields? → Flag, Address, Control, Information, FCS, Flag.
 Error detection? → CRC.

Practice questions:
 1. (2 marks) What is the flag sequence in HDLC?
o Ans: 01111110.
2. (6 marks) Explain the structure and working of HDLC with example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), frame fields (3), example (2).

15. Multiple Access Protocols

(a) ALOHA

Learning objective:
Understand random access using ALOHA protocol.

Short definition/summary:
ALOHA is a random access protocol where stations send data whenever they want;
collisions are resolved by retransmission.

Key points:

 Pure ALOHA: transmit anytime, retransmit if no ACK.

 Slotted ALOHA: time is divided into slots → better efficiency.
 Efficiency: Pure ~18%, Slotted ~36%.

Worked example:
In Pure ALOHA, two users send frames at the same time → collision → no ACK →
retransmission after random time.

Diagram:

Timeline:
[User1 Frame] [Collision] [User2 Retransmit]

Diagram explanation:

 Frames sent freely can overlap → collisions.

 Slotted ALOHA reduces collisions by aligning transmissions to time slots.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“ALOHA is a random access protocol used for sharing a single channel. In Pure ALOHA,
any station can send data at any time. If two frames collide, both are retransmitted after a
random delay. In Slotted ALOHA, time is divided into slots, and stations can only send at the
beginning of a slot, which improves efficiency. For example, in a wireless LAN, if two
laptops send at once, a collision occurs. ALOHA handles this with retransmissions, ensuring
fairness but with limited efficiency.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Two types? → Pure, Slotted.

 Efficiency? → Pure 18%, Slotted 36%.
  Problem solved? → Collisions.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Which ALOHA is more efficient?

o Ans: Slotted ALOHA.
2. (6 marks) Explain Pure and Slotted ALOHA with example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), Pure (2), Slotted (2), efficiency (1).

(b) Controlled Access

Learning objective:
Explain methods where channel access is controlled by stations.

Short definition/summary:
Controlled access protocols coordinate which station sends next, avoiding collisions.

Key points:

 Polling (master asks each station).

 Token Passing (token passed; only holder transmits).
 Reservation (stations reserve slots).
 Efficient, fewer collisions than ALOHA.

Worked example:
In token passing, a token circulates between computers in a LAN ring. Only the one holding
the token can send.

Diagram:

[Station1] --token--> [Station2] --token--> [Station3]

Diagram explanation:

 Token ensures only one station transmits.

 Reduces collisions and increases fairness.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Controlled access protocols avoid random collisions by managing which station transmits.
In polling, a master station invites others to send data. In token passing, a special frame called
a token is passed around; only the station with the token can send. In reservation, stations
reserve slots before transmitting. For example, in a token ring LAN, each station waits for the
token, which ensures fair access and prevents collisions. These methods are more efficient
than ALOHA in heavy traffic.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Three methods? → Polling, Token Passing, Reservation.

  What ensures no collisions? → Token or master control.
 Which is used in LANs? → Token passing.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) Give one example of controlled access method.

o Ans: Token passing.
2. (6 marks) Explain controlled access methods with examples.
o Marking points: Definition (1), Polling (2), Token passing (2), Reservation
(1).

(c) Channelization

Learning objective:
Explain how multiple users share a channel simultaneously.

Short definition/summary:
Channelization divides a channel into smaller parts so multiple users can use it at the same
time.

Key points:

 FDMA: frequency division.

 TDMA: time division.
 CDMA: code division.
 Widely used in wireless communication.

Worked example:
In TDMA, 3 users share one channel: User1 sends in time slot 1, User2 in slot 2, User3 in slot
3.

Diagram:

TDMA Timeline:
[User1] [User2] [User3] [User1] [User2] ...

Diagram explanation:

 In FDMA, each user gets different frequencies.

 In TDMA, time slots are shared.
 In CDMA, users share same time & frequency but use unique codes.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“Channelization protocols allow multiple users to share the same medium without collision.
In FDMA, the bandwidth is divided into frequencies, each assigned to a user. In TDMA, time
is divided into slots and each user gets a turn. In CDMA, all users share the same channel but
are separated by unique codes. For example, in mobile networks, CDMA assigns each call a
unique code, while GSM uses TDMA to allocate time slots. Channelization increases
efficiency and supports simultaneous communication.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 FDMA divides? → Frequency.

 TDMA divides? → Time.
 CDMA divides? → Code.
 Example use? → Mobile networks.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What does CDMA stand for?

o Ans: Code Division Multiple Access.
2. (6 marks) Explain FDMA, TDMA, CDMA with examples.
o Marking points: FDMA (2), TDMA (2), CDMA (2).

16. 802.11 MAC Protocol

Learning objective:
Understand how Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) manages access to the wireless medium.

Short definition/summary:
The 802.11 MAC protocol uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) to allow multiple devices to share wireless channels.

Key points:

 Based on listen before transmit principle.

 Steps:
1. Sense channel (idle or busy).
2. If idle → transmit.
3. If busy → wait for random backoff.
 Uses ACKs for reliability (since collisions cannot be detected easily).
 Optional RTS/CTS handshake helps avoid hidden terminal problem.
 Widely used in Wi-Fi networks.

Worked example:
Laptop A wants to send data → senses channel.

 If free, sends frame.

 Receiver sends ACK to confirm.
 If channel is busy, Laptop A waits random time and retries.
Diagram:

Channel Sense -> Idle? -> [Yes] Transmit Data -> Receive ACK
[No] Backoff -> Retry

Diagram explanation:

 Devices always check the channel first.

 If busy, they do not send immediately (avoids collisions).
 ACK ensures the sender knows the frame was received.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“The IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol uses CSMA/CA to manage wireless channel access. Unlike
Ethernet (CSMA/CD), collisions cannot be detected easily in wireless networks. So, each
station first senses the channel. If idle, it transmits; if busy, it waits for a random backoff
before trying again. After successful reception, the receiver sends an acknowledgment
(ACK). Optionally, RTS/CTS messages can be used to reserve the channel and avoid the
hidden terminal problem. For example, in Wi-Fi, when multiple laptops try to connect, the
MAC protocol ensures fair sharing, reduces collisions, and improves reliability.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 802.11 uses CSMA/?? → CA.

 What ensures reliability? → ACK.
 Hidden terminal solved by? → RTS/CTS.
 Ethernet uses CSMA/?? → CD.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What is the main access method in 802.11?

o Ans: CSMA/CA.
2. (6 marks) Explain how the 802.11 MAC protocol avoids collisions.
o Marking points: Definition (1), channel sensing (2), ACK (1), RTS/CTS (2).

17. IEEE 802.11 Frame

Learning objective:
Understand the structure of a Wi-Fi (802.11) frame.

Short definition/summary:
An 802.11 frame is the unit of data exchanged in Wi-Fi networks. It includes addressing,
control, data, and error-checking fields.

Key points:

 Frame Control: type, subtype, protocol info.

 Duration/ID: time reservation info.
 Address fields: up to 4 addresses (source, destination, AP, etc.).
  Sequence Control: order of frames.
 Data: actual payload.
 FCS (Frame Check Sequence): error detection.

Worked example:
When your phone sends a message over Wi-Fi:

 Frame Control tells it’s a data frame.

 Address1 = AP, Address2 = phone MAC, Address3 = internet destination.
 Sequence control ensures frames arrive in order.
 FCS checks correctness.

Diagram:

| Frame Control | Duration | Addr1 | Addr2 | Addr3 | Seq Ctrl | Addr4 |

Data | FCS |

Diagram explanation:

 Frame Control: tells whether it’s management, control, or data frame.

 Up to 4 address fields are used for source, destination, and AP (since wireless often
involves multiple hops).
 Data carries the actual user message.
 FCS ensures integrity.

Model 6-mark answer (expanded):

“An IEEE 802.11 frame is the data unit used in Wi-Fi communication. It contains several
fields. The Frame Control field describes the type of frame (management, control, or data).
The Duration/ID field helps with channel reservation. Wi-Fi frames can carry up to four
address fields: typically source, destination, and access point addresses. Sequence Control
maintains proper order of frames. The Data field carries the actual message, and the Frame
Check Sequence (FCS) is used for error detection. For example, when a mobile phone
communicates through a Wi-Fi access point, Address1 may represent the AP, Address2 the
phone’s MAC address, and Address3 the ultimate destination. These fields ensure reliable
delivery in complex wireless environments.”

Quick revision checklist (answers):

 Max number of addresses in 802.11 frame? → 4.

 What checks for errors? → FCS.
 Field that shows type of frame? → Frame Control.
 Which field ensures order? → Sequence Control.

Practice questions:

1. (2 marks) What is the function of the FCS in 802.11?

o Ans: To detect errors in the frame.
2. (6 marks) Explain the structure of an IEEE 802.11 frame with example.
o Marking points: Definition (1), Frame Control (1), Address fields (2), Data
(1), FCS (1).