PRACTICAL 1: Practice of various Linux/ Unix commands like man, cp, mv, ln, rm, unlink, mkdir,

rmdir, etc.

1. man – View Manual Pages

Show help for any command

man ls

man cp

man mkdir

2. cp – Copy Files & Directories:

a) Copy a file:

cp [Link] [Link]

b) Copy a directory (use -r)

cp -r folder1 folder2

c) Copy a file to another directory

cp [Link] /home/user/Documents/

3. mv – Move or Rename File

a) Rename a file

mv [Link] [Link]

b) Move file to directory

mv [Link] /home/user/Desktop/

c) Move multiple files

mv [Link] [Link] /home/user/Documents/

4. ln – Create Links (Hard/Soft)

a) Hard link:

ln [Link] [Link]

b) Soft/Symbolic link:

ln -s /path/to/[Link] [Link]

5. rm – Remove Files/Directories

a) Remove a file
 rm [Link]

b) Remove multiple files

rm [Link] [Link]

c) Remove a directory (recursively)

Note: Careful: this permanently deletes files

rm -r foldername

6. unlink – Remove a File

Note: Works only for files, not directories.

unlink [Link]

7. mkdir – Create Directories

a) Create a directory

mkdir myfolder

b) Create Nested directories

mkdir -p folder1/folder2/folder3

8. rmdir – Remove EMPTY Directories

a) Only deletes if directory is empty.

rmdir emptyfolder

b) Try creating and deleting:

mkdir test

rmdir test
Practical 2: Format and Install Windows Operating System.

Step 1: Create a Bootable Windows USB

Option 1: Use Microsoft Media Creation Tool

1. Download tool from Microsoft website

2. Insert USB (8 GB)

3. Run the tool → Choose Create installation media

4. Select:

o Language

o Edition (Windows 10/11)

o Architecture (64-bit)

5. Select USB Flash Drive

6. The tool will format USB and create bootable media.

Option 2: Use Rufus (If you already have ISO)

1. Download Rufus

2. Insert USB

3. Open Rufus → Select:

o Device: your USB

o Boot Selection: Windows ISO

o Partition Scheme: GPT (for UEFI systems)

o File System: NTFS

4. Click Start

Step 2: Boot from USB

1. Insert the bootable USB into the computer

2. Restart the PC

3. Enter Boot Menu / BIOS by pressing:

o F12

o F2

o Delete
 o ESC
(Depends on manufacturer)

4. Select USB Boot

5. Windows Setup will start

Step 3: Install Windows (Formatting Drive)

1. Choose Language, Time, Keyboard → Next

2. Click Install Now

3. If asked for Product Key → Enter it (or click I don't have a key)

4. Select your Windows Edition

5. Select Custom: Install Windows Only (Advanced)

6. You will see partitions:

To Format:

• Select the partition where previous Windows exists

• Click Format

To Clean Install:

• Delete all partitions:

o System

o Recovery

o Primary
(⚠ Make sure your data is backed up)

You will now see Unallocated Space.

7. Select Unallocated Space → Next

8. Installation will begin (takes 10–20 minutes)

9. System will restart automatically

Step 4: Setup Windows After Install

1. Choose Region

2. Choose Keyboard layout

3. Connect to WiFi (optional)

4. Sign in with Microsoft account or create offline account

6. Desktop will appear

Step 5: Install Drivers

Go to:

• Device Manager → Check if any drivers missing

• Install:

o Display driver (NVIDIA/AMD/Intel)

o Wifi/LAN driver

o Audio driver

o Chipset driver

Most modern systems auto-install via Windows Update.

Step 6: Install Essential Software

• Chrome/Edge

• MS Office

• Antivirus (Windows Defender is enough)

• Drivers & Utilities

1. Open Task Manager

You can open Task Manager in multiple ways:

• Press Ctrl + Shift + Esc

• OR Press Ctrl + Alt + Delete → Task Manager

• OR Right-click on Taskbar → Task Manager

2. Monitor Processes in Task Manager

Go to the “Processes” tab

Here you can see:

• Apps (running programs)

• Background processes

• Windows processes

Columns you can monitor

• CPU (%) – how much processor each app is using

• Memory (RAM)

• Disk usage

• Network usage

• GPU usage

You can sort by any column by clicking the header.

Example:
Click “CPU” → highest CPU-using process will appear on top.

3. Check Detailed Information (Performance Tab)

Click the Performance tab to monitor:

• CPU usage graph

• Memory usage

• Disk activity

• WiFi/Ethernet usage

• GPU activity

This is useful for diagnosing system slowdowns.

In Processes tab → Right-click any process → click Go to details

This opens the Details tab where you get:

• PID (Process ID)

• Exact executable name

• Status

• Priority settings

• CPU, memory details

5. How to Terminate (End) a Process

Method 1: From Processes Tab

1. Select the app

2. Click End task (bottom-right)

Method 2: From Details Tab

1. Right-click on the process

2. Click End task

3. For advanced killing click End process tree

o This ends the process AND its related child processes

⚠ Warning: Ending system processes may cause Windows to crash or reboot.

6. Process Priorities (Important Topic)

Every Windows process has a priority level that controls how much CPU time it gets.

Priority Levels (Low → High):

1. Low

2. Below Normal

3. Normal (default)

4. Above Normal

5. High

6. Real-time (⚠ dangerous)
7. How to Change Process Priority

1. Open Task Manager

2. Go to Details tab

3. Right-click a process

4. Select Set priority

5. Choose one of the levels (Normal / High / Low etc.)

Given Processes

Let’s assume the following processes:

Process Burst Time Arrival Time Priority

P1 8 0 3

P2 4 1 1

P3 9 2 4

P4 5 3 2

(a) FCFS – First Come First Serve

✔ Process executed in order of arrival time

Execution Order

P1 → P2 → P3 → P4

Gantt Chart

0 8 12 21 26

| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 |

Waiting Time Calculation

• WT(P1) = 0 − 0 = 0

• WT(P2) = 8 − 1 = 7

• WT(P3) = 12 − 2 = 10

• WT(P4) = 21 − 3 = 18

Average Waiting Time

(0 + 7 + 10 + 18) / 4 = 8.75 ms

(b) SJF – Shortest Job First (Non-preemptive)

✔ Select process with shortest burst time

Ready Queue Based on Time & Burst

• At t=0 → P1
 • At t=1 → P2 arrives (shortest → pick P2)

• After P2, available P1 & P4 → pick P4

• Next P1 → then P3

Execution Order

P1 → P2 → P4 → P3

Gantt Chart

0 8 12 17 26

| P1 | P2 | P4 | P3 |

Waiting Time

• WT(P1) = 0

• WT(P2) = 8 − 1 = 7

• WT(P4) = 12 − 3 = 9

• WT(P3) = 17 − 2 = 15

Average Waiting Time

(0 + 7 + 9 + 15) / 4 = 7.75 ms

(c) Round Robin (Time Quantum = 3 ms)

Execution Order

P1 (3), P2 (3), P3 (3), P4 (3),

P1 (3), P2 (1), P3 (3), P4 (2),

P1 (2), P3 (3), P3 (3)

Completion Times

• CT(P1) = 22

• CT(P2) = 13

• CT(P3) = 33

• CT(P4) = 20

Waiting Times

WT = CT − Arrival − Burst

• WT(P1) = 22 − 0 − 8 = 14

• WT(P2) = 13 − 1 − 4 = 8

• WT(P3) = 33 − 2 − 9 = 22
 • WT(P4) = 20 − 3 − 5 = 12

Average Waiting Time

(14 + 8 + 22 + 12) / 4 = 14 ms

(d) Priority Scheduling (Lower number = Higher Priority)

Priorities: P2 (1) < P4 (2) < P1 (3) < P3 (4)

✔ Non-preemptive priority scheduling

Execution Order

P1 starts (only process at t=0)

Gantt Chart

0 8 12 17 26

| P1 | P2 | P4 | P3 |

Waiting Times

• WT(P1) = 0

• WT(P2) = 8 − 1 = 7

• WT(P4) = 12 − 3 = 9

• WT(P3) = 17 − 2 = 15

Average Waiting Time

(0 + 7 + 9 + 15) / 4 = 7.75 ms

Summary Table

Algorithm Avg Waiting Time

FCFS 8.75 ms

SJF 7.75 ms

Round Robin (Q=3) 14 ms

Priority 7.75 ms
Practical 5: Simulate all page replacement algorithms a)FIFO b) LRU c) OPTIMAL

Reference string: 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2
Number of frames: 3

FIFO (First-In First-Out): Replace the page that has been in memory the longest (simple queue).

Step Ref Frame1 Frame2 Frame3 Fault?

1 7 7 Yes

2 0 7 0 Yes

3 1 7 0 1 Yes

4 2 2 0 1 Yes

5 0 2 0 1 No

6 3 2 3 1 Yes

7 0 2 3 0 Yes

8 4 4 3 0 Yes

9 2 4 2 0 Yes

10 3 4 2 3 Yes

11 0 0 2 3 Yes

12 3 0 2 3 No

13 2 0 2 3 No

Total Page Faults (FIFO): 10

LRU (Least Recently Used)

Replace the page which was not used for the longest time (uses recent history).

Step Ref Frame1 Frame2 Frame3 Fault?

1 7 7 Yes

2 0 7 0 Yes

3 1 7 0 1 Yes

4 2 2 0 1 Yes

5 0 2 0 1 No

6 3 2 0 3 Yes
Step Ref Frame1 Frame2 Frame3 Fault?

7 0 2 0 3 No

8 4 4 0 3 Yes

9 2 4 0 2 Yes

10 3 4 3 2 Yes

11 0 0 3 2 Yes

12 3 0 3 2 No

13 2 0 3 2 No

Total Page Faults (LRU): 9

OPTIMAL (Belady’s optimal algorithm)

Replace the page that will not be used for the longest period in the future. (Requires future
knowledge — used as a theoretical best)

Step Ref Frame1 Frame2 Frame3 Fault?

1 7 7 Yes

2 0 7 0 Yes

3 1 7 0 1 Yes

4 2 2 0 1 Yes

5 0 2 0 1 No

6 3 2 0 3 Yes

7 0 2 0 3 No

8 4 2 4 3 Yes

9 2 2 4 3 No

10 3 2 4 3 No

11 0 2 0 3 Yes

12 3 2 0 3 No

13 2 2 0 3 No

Total Page Faults (OPTIMAL): 7