Chapter 13: Excretion in Humans
1. Meaning of Excretion
Excretion is the removal from the body of:
• Waste products of metabolism
• Substances present in excess of requirements
These substances must be removed because they may be toxic or harmful if they accumulate in
the body.
Substances excreted include:
• Carbon dioxide (from respiration)
• Urea and other nitrogenous wastes
• Excess water
• Excess ions (salts)
• Hormones that are no longer needed
• Drugs and toxins
Excretion is different from egestion:
• Excretion → removal of metabolic waste
• Egestion → removal of undigested food from the alimentary canal
2. Importance of Excretion
• Many chemical reactions occur inside cells to keep the organism alive
• Some products of these reactions are poisonous
• If not removed, waste products can:
o Damage cells
o Disrupt enzyme activity
o Upset water and ion balance
Example:
• During protein metabolism, excess amino acids are broken down
• This produces ammonia, which is:
o Highly toxic
o Very alkaline
• The liver converts ammonia into urea, which is:
o Much less toxic
o Safe to transport in blood
o Easily excreted by kidneys
3. Metabolism (Background Knowledge)
Metabolism = all chemical reactions occurring in cells.
Types of metabolic reactions:
1. Catabolism
o Breakdown reactions
o Release energy
o Example: respiration (glucose → carbon dioxide + water)
2. Anabolism
o Build-up reactions
o Require energy
o Example: protein synthesis from amino acids
Energy released from catabolism is used to drive anabolic reactions.
4. Excretory Organs in Humans
(a) Lungs
• Excrete:
o Carbon dioxide
o Some water vapour
• Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration
• It diffuses from blood into alveoli and is breathed out
• Water loss through lungs is unavoidable and not regulated
(b) Kidneys
• Main excretory organs
• Remove:
o Urea
o Uric acid
o Excess water
o Excess ions
o Hormones
o Drugs and toxins
• Maintain:
o Water balance
o Ion balance (osmoregulation)
(c) Liver
• Not directly involved in removing wastes
• Produces waste products for excretion
• Functions include:
o Deamination of excess amino acids
o Formation of urea
o Breakdown of hormones and toxins
o Protein synthesis
(d) Skin (Minor Role)
• Sweat contains:
o Water
o Sodium chloride
o Traces of urea
• Sweating is mainly for temperature regulation
• Therefore, skin is not a true excretory organ
5. Structure and Position of the Kidneys
• Humans have two kidneys
• Bean-shaped, red-brown organs
• Located at the back of the abdominal cavity
• Each kidney is connected to:
o Renal artery → carries oxygenated blood with waste
o Renal vein → carries cleaned blood away
o Ureter → carries urine to the bladder
6. Internal Structure of the Kidney
When a kidney is cut longitudinally, three main regions are seen:
(a) Cortex
• Outer, darker region
• Contains:
o Glomeruli
o Renal capsules
o Convoluted tubules
(b) Medulla
• Inner, lighter region
• Contains:
o Loops of Henle
o Collecting ducts
(c) Pelvis
• Funnel-shaped cavity
• Collects urine before it enters the ureter
7. Nephron: Structure and Definition
A nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
Each kidney contains up to 4 million nephrons.
Structure of a nephron:
1. Glomerulus
o A knot of capillaries
o Receives blood under high pressure
2. Renal (Bowman’s) capsule
o Cup-shaped structure
o Surrounds the glomerulus
o Collects filtrate
3. Renal tubule
o Proximal convoluted tubule
o Loop of Henle
o Distal convoluted tubule
4. Collecting duct
o Receives fluid from many nephrons
o Passes through medulla
o Opens into pelvis
8. Function of the Kidneys
Kidneys work by two main processes:
(a) Filtration (Ultrafiltration)
• Occurs in the glomerulus
• Blood enters under high pressure because:
o Afferent arteriole is wider than efferent arteriole
• High pressure forces plasma out through capillary walls
Substances filtered:
• Water
• Glucose
• Amino acids
• Ions
• Urea
• Uric acid
Substances NOT filtered:
• Red blood cells
• Plasma proteins (too large)
The filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate.
(b) Reabsorption
• Occurs along the renal tubule
• Useful substances are absorbed back into the blood
Substances reabsorbed:
• All glucose
• Most water
• Required ions (e.g. sodium)
Reabsorption ensures:
• No glucose is lost in urine
• Blood composition remains constant
9. Formation of Urine
• Substances not needed by the body remain in the tubule:
o Urea
o Uric acid
o Excess ions
o Excess water
• These substances pass into:
o Collecting duct
o Pelvis
o Ureter
• The fluid is now called urine
10. Composition of Urine
Urine contains:
• Large amount of water
• High concentration of urea
• Excess ions
• No glucose (in healthy individuals)
• No proteins
• No red blood cells
Urine composition varies depending on:
• Diet
• Temperature
• Physical activity
• Amount of water drunk
11. Storage and Release of Urine
Bladder:
• Muscular sac
• Stores urine
• Capacity ≈ 400 cm³
Sphincter muscle:
• Circular muscle at bladder exit
• Controls release of urine
Urination:
• In adults → voluntary control
• In babies → reflex action triggered by bladder pressure
12. Osmoregulation (Water Balance)
Osmoregulation is the control of water content of body fluids.
When excess water is present:
• Less water reabsorbed
• Large volume of dilute urine produced
When water is lacking:
• More water reabsorbed
• Small volume of concentrated urine produced
This helps maintain:
• Constant blood concentration
• Normal cell function
13. Role of the Liver in Excretion
(a) Deamination
• Removal of nitrogen-containing part of amino acids
• Occurs in liver cells
• Produces:
o Ammonia
o Carbon skeleton
(b) Urea Formation
• Ammonia is toxic
• Converted into urea
• Urea transported by blood to kidneys
(c) Other Liver Functions Related to Excretion
• Breakdown of hormones
• Detoxification of drugs and alcohol
• Production of plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen)
• Conversion of excess amino acids into glycogen or fat