Amphibia

Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates that can live both in water and on land at different
stages of their life. They usually have aquatic larval stages (tadpoles) and terrestrial adult stages,
showing a process called metamorphosis.

General characteristics

1. Body bilaterally symmetrical.

2. Aquatic or semiaquatic (freshwater), air and water breathing, carnivorous, cold-blooded
(poikilothermic),oviparous, tetrapod vertebrates.
3. Head distinct, trunk elongated. Neck and tail may be present or absent.
4. Limbs usually 2 pairs (tetrapod), some limbless. Toes 4-5 (pentadactyle) or less. Paired fins
absent. Median fins, if present,without fin ray.
5. The moist skin is naked.
6. Skin soft, moist and glandular. Pigment cells (chromatophores) present.
7. Exoskeleton absent. Digits clawless, Some with concealed dermal scales.
8. Endoskeleton mostly bony. Notochord does not persist. Skull with 2 occipital condyles.
9. Mouth large. Upper or both jaws with smalt homodont teeth. Tongue often
[Link] canal terminates into cloaca
10. Respiration by lungs, skin and mouth [Link] with external gills which may persist in
some aquatic adults.
11. Heart 3-chambered (2 auricles+l ventricle).Sinus venosus present. Aortic archcs 1-3 pairs.
Renal and hepatic portal systems well developed. Erythrocytes large, oval and nucleated.
Body temperature variablc (poikilothermous).
12. Kidneys [Link] bladder [Link] ducts open into [Link]
Ureotelic
13. Brain poorly developed. Cranial nerves IO pairs.
14. Nostrils connected to buccal cavity.
15. Middle ear with a single rod-like ossicle, columella.
16. Tympanum present and covers the middle ear.
17. Metamorphosis present
18. Larval forms and some aquatic adults with lateral line system .Larva a tadpole which
metamorphoses into adult
19. Sexes separate. Male without copulatory organ. Gonoducts open into cloaca.
20. Fertilization mostly external. Females mostly oviparous.
21. Development indirect. Cleavage holoblastic but unequal. No extra-embryonic membranes.
22. The amnion and allantois are absent.
 Classification of Amphibia
The living amphibians are represented by about 2500 species. They dominated the world during
carboniferous, but most of them have become extinct since long. G. Kingsley Noble (1924)
recognized 3 orders of extinct and 3 orders of living amphibians.
Subclass I: Stegocephalia (Extinct)
1. Limbs pentadactyle.
2. Skin with scales and bony plates.
3. Skull with a solid bony roof, living openings for eyes and nostrils.
4. Extinct lizard-like or salamander-like Amphibia.
5. Permian to Triassic.
Order 1: Labyrinthodontia
1. Oldest known tetrapod called stem Amphibia.
2. Fresh water or land forms.
3. Salamander or crocodile like.
4. Teeth large with characteristically much folded dentine similar to their crossopterygian
ancestors.
5. Carboniferous to Triassic.
Example: Eryops.
Order 2: Phyllospondyli
1. Small salamander-like.
2. Head large, flat. The skull roof had a separate quadrato-jugal and a lacrimal.
3. Vertebrae tubular.
4. Four fingers and five toes.
5. Notochord and spinal cord housed in common cavity.
6. Believed to be ancestors of modern salientia and urodela.
7. Carboniferous to Permian.
Example: Branchiosaurs (Ichthyostega).
Order 3: Lepospondyli
1. Small salamander or eel-like.
2. Vertebrae cylindrical, each made of a single piece.
3. Neural arch and centrum continuous.
4. Ribs articulating intervertebrally.
5. Regarded ancestral to modern caecilians (Gymnophiona).
6. Carboniferous to Permian.
Example: Diplocaulus, Lysorophus.
Subclass II: Lissamphibia (living)
1. Modern Amphibia lacking dermal bony skeleton.
2. Teeth small simple.
Order 1: Gymnophiona or Apoda
(Gr; gymnos= naked + ophioneos= serpent-like) or (Gr; a= without + podos= foot)
1. Limbless, blind, elongated worm like, burrowing tropical forms known as caecilians.
2. Body is elongated [Link] short or absent, cloaca terminal.
3. In some dermal scales embedded in skin which is transversally wrinkled.
4. Skull compact, roofed with bone.
5. Limb girdle absent.
6. Males have protrusible copulatory organs.
Example: About 55 species. Ichthyophis, Uroaeotyphlus.
Order 2: Urodela or Caudata
(Gr; Ura= tail + delos= visible) or (L; cauda= tail)
1. Lizard like amphibians with a distinct head, trunk and tail.
2. Limbs 2 pairs, usually weak, almost equal.
3. Skin devoid of scales and tympanum.
4. Gills permanent or lost in adults.
5. Males without copulatory organs. Females usually oviparous.
6. Larvae aquatic, adult-like, with teeth.
7. About 300 species in 5 suborders.
Example: Cryptobranchus, Megalobranchus, Ambystoma, Salamandra (Salamander)
Order 3: Salientia or Anura
(L; saliens= leaping) or (Gr; an= without + aura= tail)
1. Specialized Amphibia without tail in adults.
2. Head and trunk are fused. Neck and tail are absent.
3. Forelimbs are short, while hindlimbs are [Link] limbs usually adapted for leaping
and swimming.
4. Adults without gills or gill openings. Respiration is by lungs.
5. Eyelids well-formed. Tympanum present.
6. Skin loosely-fitting, [Link] present.
7. Mandible toothless.
8. Pectoral girdle bony. Ribs absent of reduced. Vertebral column very small of 5-9
presacral vertebrae and a slender urostyle.
9. Fertilization always external.
10. Fully metamorphosed without neotenic forms.
11. About 2200 species of frogs and toads in 5 suborders.
Examples: Bufo, Hyla (upper jaw toothed).
Difference between frog and toad:
Distinguishing Frog Toad
Features
Habitat Frog mostly lives in water but Toad mostly lives on land and comes
comes to land for feeding to water for breeding
Active period Frog is diurnal Toad is nocturnal
Skin Moist, smooth and colorful. It Dry, bumpy and dull colors. It has
has numerous mucous glands numerous poisonous glands and
and fewer poisonous glands. fewer mucous glands.
Appearance Frogs are usually lean and Toads are stubby and shorter than
slender in appearance frogs
Legs Frogs have longer legs, they can Toads have relatively shorter legs and
jump higher than toads can jump, but not as high as frogs
Locomotion A frog rarely crawls Toads move around mostly by
crawling
Head Triangular Semicircular
Parotid gland Frog does not have parotid Toad has a pair of parotid glands
glands
Webbed feet Frogs have well-developed Webs are not developed in their feet
webbed feet to suit their
semiaquatic nature
Teeth Have teeth in their upper jaw No teeth
Eggs Lay their eggs in clusters Lay their eggs in long chains
Tadpoles Frog tadpoles are slimmer and Toad tadpoles are chunky and black
gold in colour in colour

Difference between Frog and Salamander

Distinguishing Frog Salamander
Features
Skin Skin loosely-fitting, scaleless Skin is close-fitting
Appearance Frogs are usually lean and They are elongated, lizard like forms
slender in appearance and more generalized than frogs
Limbs Limbs well-developed Limbs are usually weak and subequal
Tail Amphibia without tail in adults Amphibia with a distinct tail in adults
Metamorphosis Fully metamorphosed with They undergo less profound changes in
intense structural changes structure at metamorphosis
Teeth Have teeth in their upper jaw Terminal mouth is bounded by jaws
with or without teeth
Tympanum Eyelids and tympanum present Eyelids and tympanum absent
 Food They feed on snails, spiders, They live on worms, small arthropods
worms and insects and small molluscs
Fertilization Fertilization always external Fertilization internal
Vertebral column Vertebrae procoelous Vertebrae opisthocoelous (bulged on
the anterior side and depressed on the
posterior side)
Excretion Frogs are ureotelic They are ammonotelic

Skeletal System
There is no exoskeleton in frog. The skeletonthat supports the soft parts lies internally and is
designated as the endoskeleton. It is chiefly made up of bones and cartilages. These two
structures are associated with one another to form the internal framework. The endoskeleton is
described under two broad heads:
(i) The axial skeleton-The axial skeleton comprises the skull,vertebral column and sternum
(ii) The appendicular skeleton-It consists of pectoral and pelvic girdles, and the skeleton
of paired limbs and unpaired appendages.
The axial skeleton
Skull : The skull of frog is broad and flat and consists of a narrow craniumor brain box, paired
sense capsules, large orbits, the jaws, hyoid and cartilages of larynx.
a) Cranium
• The cranium is the narrow cavity lodging the brain, hence, it is also called brain box.
• At the posterior end of the skull or cranium, there is a large aperture called foramen magnum.
Through this aperture the spinal cord passes. It is surrounded by two exoccipitals which bears
two convex occipital condyles that fit into the two concavities of the first vertebra.
• In the front part of the cranium, there is a sphenethmoid enclosing the forebrain and olfactory
sacs. It is dorsally covered by a pair of nasals and frontoparietals. The roof of the cranium is
made up of two flat bones called the frontoparietals. Ventrally, the floor of the cranium is
formed of a dagger-shaped parasphenoid.
b) Sensory capsules
• The auditory capsule is fused on the outer side of each exoccipital. Each auditory capsule
has a prooticin front, the capsule has an aperture, the fenestra ovalis into which a
cartilaginous stapedial plate fits. The stapedial plate is a part of the columella derived from
the hyomandibular.
• The olfactory capsules have two nasalsdorsally and two vomers ventrally, the vomers bear
vomerine teeth. A pair of special bones called septomaxillary (ethmoids) bones form the
boundary of nostrils, they are associated with and surround the Jacobson’s organ.
• The optic capsules or orbits enclose the eyes and are not fused with the skull.
c) Upper and lower Jaws
• The upper jaw has two halves, each half has an anterior premaxilla followed by a long
maxilla, both bear teeth. The posterior part of the upper jaw has a small quadratojugal. Its
broad posterior end unites with quadrate cartilage.
• Ventral anterior to the orbit is a slender, rod-like palatineand posteriorly on the ventral side
there is a 3-rayed or Y-shaped [Link] each maxilla is a squamosal.
• As the junction of pterygoid, quadratojugal and squamosal is a quadrate cartilage from which
the lower jaw is [Link] lower jaw has two rami joined in front by elastic ligament.
Each half has a core of Meckel’s cartilage covered over by an angulosplenial posteriorly and
dentary anteriorly. The anterior end of the Meckel’s cartilage ossifies into a mentomeckelian.
d) Hyoid
• Hyoid has a thin body made of cartilage which supports the floor of the buccal cavity. It is
produced in front into two alar processes and behind into two posterior lateral processes.
• In front are also two long slender anterior cornua of cartilage, they curve backwards and join
the auditory capsules. Posteriorly is a pair of strong bony posterior cornuaor thyrohyals
between which lies the [Link] hyoid lies in the floor of the pharynx, beneath the tongue.
Vertebral Column : The vertebral column or backbone of frog encloses and protects the spinal
cord. It is very much short due to the absence of tail. It is composed of nine vertebrae and a
terminal rod-like structure called the urostyle. The first, eighth and ninth vertebrae are peculiar,
while vertebrae from second to seventh are almost similar in structure.
[Link] Vertebra :
• A typical vertebra has a solid cylindrical part known as the centrum. The centrum is
procoelous, i.e., it is concave in front and convex behind. On the dorsal side, the centrum
bears a ring-like neural arch which encloses the neural canal.
• The neural arch possesses a backwardly directed spinous process or neural spine. The lateral
sides of the neural arch carry transverse processes. The neural arch possesses two articulating
processes. The anterior processes having upwardly and inwardly directed articular surfaces
are known as the prezygapophyses and the posterior processes having downwardly and
outwardly directed articular surfaces are called the postzygapophyses.
• The posterior convexity of a vertebra fits into the anterior concavity of the centrum of next
vertebra. This mode of articulation of the centra gives flexibility. Between the neural arches
of the consecutive vertebrae are spaces called inter-vertebral notches through which the
spinal nerves pass.

[Link] Vertebra:
• The first vertebra is called the atlas vertebra. It is ring-like in form. Centrum and neural spine
are reduced. Transverse processes and prezygapophysis are absent.
• The neural arch is large. The anterior face of centrum possesses a pair of concave facets for
the articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull. The posterior margin of the neural
arch bears a pair of postzygapophyses.
[Link] Vertebra:
• The centrum of eighth vertebra is amphicoelous, i.e., biconcave on both the sides. The
anterior concavity receives the posterior convexity of the Vllth vertebra. Transverse processes
are long, slender and outwardly directed. Prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses are present
on the anterior and posterior margins of the neural arch respectively.

[Link] Vertebra:
• The ninth vertebra is also known as sacral vertebra. The centrum of ninth vertebra is
biconvex, i.e., convex on both the sides (bearing one convexity anteriorly and two
convexities posteriorly). The anterior convexity fits into the posterior concavity of eighth
vertebra. The posterior convexities fit into the anterior concavities of urostyle.
• Transverse processes are cylindrical, stout and backwardly directed. Iliac facet is present at
the tip of each transverse process for the articulation of ilium bone of pelvic girdle. Neural
spine is inconspicuous, i.e., greatly reduced. Prezygapophyses are well developed along the
anterior end of neural arch, while the postzygapophyses are entirely absent.
[Link] : Urostyle is the ninth vertebra representing the caudal region in the frog. It is long
and triangular with pointed apex directed backwards.
• Centrumis long and rod-like with broad anterior and bearing two concavities to receive the
convexities of ninth vertebra. Dorsally it is raised into a vertical ridge gradually tapering
posteriorly. Anteriorly the vertical ridge contains a short, narrow canal for spinal cord.
Transverse processes, pre- and postzygapophyses are entirely absent.
Functions of Vertebral Column: The vertebral column serves the following functions:
1. It supports the trunk region.
2. It encloses and protects the spinal cord.
3. In front it supports the head which is held slightly above the ground.
4. It acts as a body-axis from which viscera are suspended in the body cavity by mesenteries.
5. It helps in locomotion by providing attachment in the pelvic girdle and hindlimbs.
Sternum:
It lies mid-ventrally connected between the two halves of pectoral girdle. It is composed of four
parts. Anterior to the claviclelies an inverted Y-shaped bony omosternum which is anteriorly
attached with the rounded, flat cartilaginous episternum.
Posterior to the epicoracoid and coracoids is a bony rod-like sternum proper or mesosternumto
which is attached a broad cartilaginous xiphisternum posteriorly. Ribs are absent.
Appendicular Skeleton
[Link] Girdle
The pectoral girdle or shoulder girdle is present in
the thoracic region and provides attachment to the
forelimbs and their muscles. It also protects the
inner softer parts of the thorax. It consists of two
similar halves united mid-ventrally and separated
dorsally. Each half is divided into a dorsal scapular
portion and a ventral coracoid portion.
a. Scapular Region: The scapular portion
comprises the suprascapular and scapula.
Suprascapula is a thin, flat somewhat rectangular
cartilaginous plate on the dorsal side which covers the first four vertebrae. Scapula is a bony
plate having a glenoid cavity into which articulates the head of humerus.
b. Coracoid Portion: The coracoid portion comprises the clavicle, coracoid, precoracoid and
epicoracoid. Clavicle(a slender rod) and coracoid(dumb-bell-shaped) meet mid-ventrally with the
sternum and their counterparts of other side by a strip of cartilage, the epicoracoid.
2. Pelvic Girdle:
• In frog, the pelvic girdle lies in the posterior region of the trunk. It gives support to the
hindlimbs. It is V-shaped and composed of two similar halves, each of which is known as os-
innominatum. Each os-innominatumis composed of three bones, ilium, pubis and ischium.
• Ilium is greatly elongated and forms the major part of each os-innominatum. It runs forwards
to meet the transverse process of the ninth vertebra. It bears a prominent dorsal vertical ridge,
the iliac crest. Both the ilia fuse posteriorly and form the anterior and upper half of the disc
and acetabulum.
• Pubis is much reduced. It is a triangular piece of calcified cartilage, forming the central part
of the disc and a small part of the acetabulum. Both the pubis are also fused.
• Ischium is larger and slightly oval bone and both the ischia fused in the middle and form one-
third part of the disc and acetabulum.
• Thus, the disc is formed by the union of these three bones containing a cup shaped cavity, the
acetabulum. In acetabulum the head of femur articulates.
3. Forelimbs: The bones of the forelimbs include humerus, radio-ulna and the bones of hand.
a. Humerus:
• Humerus is the bone of the upper arm of forelimb. It is a short, stout and cylindrical bone
with a slightly curved shaft. Its proximal rounded end is known as the head which fits into
the glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle.
• The head is covered with calcified cartilage. The ridge below the head is known as deltoid
ridge to which muscles are attached. The distal end forms a rounded trochlea with a condylar
ridge on either side. The trochlea articulates with the groove of radio-ulna.

b. Radio-ulna:
• Radio-ulna is a compound bone of forearm of forelimb. It is formed by the fusion of radius
and ulna bones. Its proximal end has a concavity to receive the trochlea of humerus. The
proximal portion of ulna projects into an olecranon process forming the elbow joint.
• The distal portion of radio-ulna is somewhat flat having a median groove terminating into a
facet providing articular surface for the proximal row of metacarpals.
c. Bones of Hand:
• The bones of wrist are called carpals. The carpal bones are six in number and are arranged in
two rows of three each. The bones of the proximal row are called ulnare, intermedium
(centrale) and radiale. These bones articulate with the radio-ulna. The bones of the distal row
are called capitohamatum, trapezoid and trapezium. These bones articulate with the
metacarpals.
• The hand or manus is provided with five slender metacarpals. The first metacarpal is
rudimentary. The digit corresponding to thumb is absent; the remaining four metacarpals are
supported by phalanges. The second and third digits bears two phalanges. The fourth and
fifth digits bear three phalanges each.
4. Hindlimbs: The bones of hand-limbs include femur, tibio-fibula, astragalus calcaneum and
bones of the foot.
[Link]: Femur is the bone of thigh region of hindlimb. It is long and slender having a slightly
curved shaft. The proximal swollen end is called the head. Head fits into the acetabulum of
pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint. The distal end forms a condyle which articulates
with the tibio-fibula. The head and condyle are covered by calcified cartilage.
b. Tibio-Fibula: Tibio-fibula is a compound bone of shank region of hindlimb. It is formed by
the fusion of inner tibia and outer fibula bones forming a single bone called the tibio-fibula. In
between the two is a median longitudinal groove. The proximal and distal ends are covered by
calcified cartilage. Near the proximal end tibia bears an cnemial or tibial crest. The proximal end
articulates with the femur, while the distal end articulates with the astragalus-calcaneum.

c. Astragalus-Calcaneum:
• Astragalus-calcaneum is a compound bone of ankle of hindlimb. The ankle consists of two
rows of four tarsal bones. The first or proximal row consists of two long bones fused together
at their proximal and distal ends with a wide gap in the middle.
• The inner bone is thinner and slightly curved, called the astragalus or tibiale, while the outer
bone is thicker and straight, called the calcaneum or flbulare. The proximal and distal ends
are covered by epiphyses of calcified cartilage. Proximal epiphysis
d. Bones of Foot:
• The foot of frog is supported by five long and slender meta tarsals bearing five true toes,
having 2, 2, 3, 4 and 3 phalanges respectively. A small preaxial sixth toe composed of 2 or 3
bones is present on the inner side of the first toe or hallux. Preaxial sixth toe is called the
prehallux or calcar and does not project.
Digestive System
Frog is a carnivorous animal. It feeds on small insects, spiders, snails, earthworms, fishes,
tadpole etc. Generally only moving animals are caught and eaten by frogs and the motionless are
ignored. If the prey is found undesirable it is thrown out.
Prey capture mechanism: When any prey comes near to it, it opens its mouth and suddenly flicks
out its sticky tongue and strikes the prey. As soon as the prey comes in contact with the tongue, it
immediately adheres to it. Now the tongue is quickly withdrawn with the prey into the buccal
cavity that would not be allowed to escape due to the presence of the hooklike inwardly directed
maxillary and vomerine teeth. From the buccal cavity it is swallowed entirely into oesophagusby
the contraction of the pharyngeal wall and then by peristalsis into the [Link] digestive
system of frog mainly consists of
A. The alimentary canal -In the alimentary canal the processes of mastication, digestionand
absorption take place
B. The associated digestive glands -the digestive glands secrete certain enzymes which bring
about the digestion of the ingested food.
Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal of the frog is essentially a short, coiled tube because frogs are carnivores
and hence the length of intestine is reduced but complete. It starts with mouth and ends in cloaca.
It consists of the mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestine and cloaca.
[Link]:
The alimentary canal starts with an aperture which is known as mouth opening. Mouth is a very
wide gape bounded by two bony upper and lower jaws covered by immovable lips.
[Link] Cavity:
Mouth leads into a wide and broad oral or buccal cavity which lies in between the two jaws-the
upper and the lower jaw. The upper jaw is fixed or immovable, while the lower jaw is hinged and
can be freely moved up and down in the vertical plane.
The buccal cavity is lined by ciliated, columnar epithelium which contains mucus secreting
glands. Mucus lubricates the food. In frog, salivary glands are absent. Some parts of buccal
cavity are as follows
(i) Teeth : Teeth are found only on upper jaw. They are of two types :Maxillary teeth and
Vomerine teeth.
• The upper jaw bears a row of closely set, small, uniform and hook-like pointed maxillary
teeth over the premaxillae and maxillae, but the lower jaw lacks the teeth.
• Besides these, there are two more patches of small, uniform (homodont) teeth found one on
either side of the median line of the roof of the buccal cavity, they are called vomerine teeth
as they are born on the vomer bones. They are curved backwards and attached to the bones
(acrodont). These teeth are not used for chewing but prevent the escape of the captured prey.
(ii) Internal Nostrils: The roof of buccal cavity has
two small openings just in front of the vomerine teeth
the internal or posterior nares connecting with the
nasal cavities through which the respiratory gases
pass to and from the buccal cavity during respiration.
Ecotone and Edge effect .
(iii) Tongue: The large,thick,fleshy and protrusible
tongue attached in front to the inner border of lower
jaw, and free and notched behind lies on the floor of
the buccal cavity. Its upper surface bears taste buds in
the form of small papillae and mucous glands of
which the secretions make the tongue [Link]
tongue can be thrown out and retracted to capture and
engulf insects.
(iv)Bulgings of Orbits: The roof of buccal cavity behind the vomerine teeth has two large, oval
pale areas, the bulgings of eyeballs. During swallowing of food, eyes are depressed causing the
orbits to bulge inwards which pushes the food into the pharynx.
3. Pharynx :
• Posteriorly, the buccal cavity passes without demarcation into a short pharynx which in turn
opens into the oesophagus through gullet. The buccal cavity and pharynx are sometimes
called the buccopharyngeal cavity.
• This region has a gullet in the centre, glottis below the gullet and a pair of openings of
Eustachian tubes, one on either side near the left and the right jaw angles.
• Gullet is the larger and transverse aperture which opens only at the time of swallowing of the
food. The vertical, median slit like glottis leads to the laryngo-tracheal chamber. It is always
opened during breathing but closes while food is being swallowed.
• In male frog, a pair of opening of vocal sacs is found on the floor of the buccal cavity near
the jaw angles.
[Link]:
• The gullet leads into short,wide and muscular part of the alimentary canal called oesophagus
• This part of the alimentary canal is very short due to the absence of neck but highly
distensible as its inner lining is thrown into a large number of longitudinal folds which allow
the sufficient expansion of the oesophagus during the passage of the ingested food through it
to the stomach.
• The glandular lining of oesophagus secretes an alkaline digestive fluid. It opens into the
stomach without any demarcation line.
[Link]:
• Stomach is a thick, muscular and ‘J’ shaped part which is the most important part of the
alimentary canal where the digestion of ingested food takes place with the help of certain
digestive enzymes secreted by the digestive glands situated in its wall.
• It is differentiated into anterior, broader and larger cardiac stomach and posterior, narrower
and smaller pyloric stomach. Internally there are longitudinal folds in the stomach which
enable the stomach to expand whenever needed.
• The stomach leads into the intestine through a pyloric sphincter(a circular ring-like muscle).
It regulates the passage of food from the stomach into the intestine.

[Link]:
• The stomach leads into the longest tubular part of the alimentary canal the intestine. It
consists of two parts : (i) the small intestine and (II) the large intestine.
(i) Small Intestine:
• The small intestine is long, narrow and tubular which lies in several loops supported bya fan-
like membrane, the mesentery.
• It is differentiated into proximal duodenum and distal ileum. The duodenumrun forward and
forms ‘U’ shaped structure with the stomach. The duodenum receives the hepatopancreatic
duct from liver and pancreas bringing the bile and pancreatic [Link] internal mucous
lining forms low transverse folds.
• The ileum is a long, narrow, very much coiled tube which forms the longest part of
alimentary canal. Its lower end leads into rectum (large intestine).
• The internal mucous lining of ileum forms a number of longitudinal folds. Digestion and
absorption of food takes place in this part.
(II) Large Intestine: The large intestine or rectum is a short and wide tube, running straight
behind to open into cloaca by anus guarded by an anal sphincter. Its mucosal lining forms
numerous low longi-tudinal [Link] function is the reabsorption of water and preparation and
storage of faeces.
[Link]:
• It is a small sac-like structure and receives the openings of anus and urinogenital apertures.
• Cloaca opens to the outside through vent or cloacal aperture situated at the posterior end of
the body through which the undigested material, sex cells and excretory products are
removed from time to time.

Digestive glands
Two large digestive glands, in addition to other glands located in the alimentary canal of frog are
i. Liver. ii. Pancreas. iii. Gastric glands. iv. Intestinal glands.
i) Liver :
• It is the largest, reddish-brown, multilobed gland found in the anterior region of the body
cavity close to the heart and lungs. It consists of two lobes-the right and the left. These two
lobes remain connected with each other by a narrow bridge of liver tissue. The left lobe is
larger than the right and again subdivided into two lobes.
• Between the right and left lobes there is a thin-walled, round, large, greenish sac called gall-
bladder. It serves as a storage reservoir for the bile, a greenish alkaline fluid which is
constantly secreted by the innumerable polygonal liver cells. The bile helps in the emulsify-
cation of fats, changes pH of food from acidic to alkaline and checks the growth of bacteria.
• The bile passes into the gall bladder through hepatic ducts which join and open into cystic
ducts which are attached to the gall bladder.
• The hepatic and cystic ducts join to form a common bile duct. It runs through the pancreas
and joins the pancreatic duct to form a hepatopancreatic duct which ultimately opens into
duodenum.
ii) Pancreas:
• It is an irregular, branched, flattened and yellow-coloured gland of exocrine and endocrine
function, which is held by mesentery between the stomach and duodenum.
• Its endocrine part is formed by irregularly distributed compact groups of cells called islets of
Langerhans manufacturing the hormone insulin concerned with sugar metabolism.
• The exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice which contains many digestive enzymes such as
trypsin, amylase, lipase, etc. which digest the ingested food. The pancreatic juice is conveyed
into duodenum through the hepatopancreatic duct.

iii) Gastric glands: The gastric glands present in the mucosa of stomach secrete gastric juice
containing HCl and pepsin.
iv) Intestinal glands: The intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice, which along with pancreatic
juice complete the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats in the intestine.

Respiratory System

Definition : Organs which help in the intake of oxygen and supply it to the body tissues and
removal of carbon dioxide constitute the respiratory system.

Types of Respiration

• Respiration in tadpole or larval stage occurs by means of external gills as in fishes.

• On the other hand, in adult frog, due to its amphibian life, respiration occurs—
i) through moist surface of outer skin (cutaneous respiration)
ii) through lining of the bucco-pharyngeal cavity (buccal respiration) and
iii) through the lungs (pulmonary respiration).
• Ordinary respiratory requirements are met by the skin and bucco-pharyngeal cavity, lungs
are used only when the need of oxygen is great.
i) Cutaneous Respiration

• This is the most important mode of respiration where skin acts as a respiratory organ and it
takes place through thin, moist, highly vascular and naked skin.
• It is practically an amphibious organ of respiration as the skin helps in respiration both on
land and in [Link] the frog is under water or undergoes summer sleep (aestivation) and
winter sleep (hibernation), the skin is the only organ of respiration.
• Skin is richly supplied with blood capillaries and is permeable to gases because the thin skin
remains moist with the water and also mucus, secreted by mucous glands.
• During gaseous exchange the oxygen first dissolves in the moisture present over the body
and then diffuses into the blood circulating in the blood capillaries, while the resultant carbon
dioxide passes out from the blood into the surrounding medium (water) by diffusion.
• In cutaneous respiration, no movements are needed because skin always remains exposed to
air or water.

ii) Buccal Respiration

• When the frog is on land, this type of respiration takes place through thin, moist, vascular
lining of the buccopharyngeal cavity.
• The mucous lining of the buccal cavity is richly supplied with blood capillaries and remains
moist by the mucus.
• The buccal respiration occurs by lowering and raising of the floor of the buccal cavity
continuously during which the air is constantly sucked into the buccal cavity and is drawn
out through the external and internal nares.

• In this type of respiration, the mouth and glottis remain closed. Thus, no air enters or goes
out from the lungs.
• When the floor of the buccal cavity is lowered, the air enters the buccal cavity through the
nostrils or the nares. The oxygen of air dissolves in the layer of mucus and then goes into
blood with the help of hemoglobin. At the same time carbon dioxide is given out from the
 blood into the buccal cavity which is expelled along with residual air through the nostrils
when the floor of the buccal cavity is raised.

iii) Pulmonary Respiration

• Respiration on land in air with the help of lungs is the pulmonary respiration.
• As lungs are poorly developed in frog, the intake of oxygen by lungs is not sufficient to the
body. Therefore, oxygen intake through moist skin and buccal cavity is needed.

Organs of Respiration

• The chief organs for aerial respiration are a pair of lungs.

• The lungs are not only the organs of respiration but are also hydrostatic organs as they enable
frog to float in water when they are inflated.

a) Respiratory Tract

• The passage through which air enters and leaves the lungs is called respiratory tract.
• It includes the external nostrils, nasal chambers, internal nostrils, bucco-pharyngeal cavity,
glottis, laryngo-tracheal chamber and a pair of bronchi.
• The median slit-like glottis on the floor of pharynx opens into a small, thin walled chamber,
called larynx (laryngo-tracheal chamber).
• Larynx is a small sac whose walls are supported by a slender ring like cricoid cartilage and
two crescentic arytenoid cartilages. These prevent the larynx from collapsing.
• The arytenoid cartilages are a pair of semilunar valves whose upper edges form the lateral
margins of the [Link] afford attachment to muscles by which glottis may be opened or
[Link] enters through the nostrils into the buccal cavity, then to the alveoli of the lungs.

b) Lungs

• A pair of lungs are found in the anterior part of the body cavity, one on the either side of the
heart which are covered externally by coelomic epithelium called peritoneum.
• The lungs are elongated or ovoid, thin-walled, pinkish elastic sacs with a network of shallow
internal folds or septa that increase the inner surface for exchange of gases to form many
chambers called alveoli. These are separated from each other through septa.
• The alveoli are lined with thin epithelium, richly supplied with blood capillaries containing
deoxygenated blood for gaseous exchange and contain unstriped muscle fibres which give
remarkable power of contraction and expansion to the lungs.
• They (alveoli) remain moist with mucus secreted by mucous glands situated in the wall.
• The lungs open in front into the small laryngo-tracheal chamber (larynx) through the short
[Link] laryngo-tracheal chamber communicates with the pharynx by glottis.
• Here also the exchange of gases between the alveoli and blood capillaries takes place by
[Link] of the inhaled air diffuses into blood while carbon dioxide is released into
alveoli.
 Sound-making Organ

• In male frogs, a pair of opening of vocal sacs is found on the floor of the buccal cavity near
the jaw angles.
• The true sound producing organs are a pair of
vocal cords, extending longitudinally across
the larynx.
• Larynx is a small sac whose walls are
supported by two arytenoid and one cricoid
cartilages.
• Its internal lining forms a pair of elastic
horizontal bands, the vocal cords so that
larynx is also known as voice box.
• Their median edges are thickened and lie near
each other in the middle line.
• When air from lungs is forced out between
vocal cords, they start vibrating and making
the characteristic croaking sound.
• The laryngeal muscles can change the tension
of the cords and hence the pitch of the sound.
• Vocal sacs found only in male frog serve as resonators (increase the pitch of sound) at the
time of croaking produced by the vocal cords.
• The production of sound is a protective response for fear and the males call the females
during breeding season.

Circulatory System
Single and double circulation :

• In single circulation, the blood passes through a single circulatory pathway or circuit –
where blood is pumped by the heart to the gills for oxygenation, after which the blood flows
to the rest of the body and back to the heart.e.g. fishes.
• In double circulation, the blood passes through the heart twice and has two separate
pathways or circuits through which oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flows.
The right pump sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated and
returns back to the [Link] left pump sends the newly oxygenated blood around the
body.e.g. birds, mammals.

Open and Closed Circulatory System

• Open circulatory system: It is primarily found in invertebrates. Here, the blood flows freely
through cavities since there are no vessels to conduct the blood.
• Closed circulatory system: It is found in vertebrates and a few invertebrates, like
earthworms. This system has vessels that conduct blood throughout the body.
Difference between single and double circulation

Feature Single Circulation Double Circulation

Number of times Blood flows through the heart Blood flows through the heart twice to
blood passes only once to complete the complete the full circuit
through heart circuit
Chambers of heart Heart is two-chambered with Heart is four-chambered with two atria
one atrium and one ventricle and two ventricles
Type of blood Heart only transports venous Both, oxygenated and deoxygenated
transported blood, i.e., deoxygenated blood circulate through the heart
blood
Path of blood flow Blood, after oxygenation in Blood after oxygenation in lungs,
gills, does not return to the comes back to the heart and then is
heart and directly goes to body pumped to different body parts
tissues through systemic circulation
Circulation Blood flows in single pathway Blood flows in two pathways, i.e.,
pathway pulmonary circulation and systemic
circulation
Efficiency It is a less efficient system and It is a more efficient system and blood
blood flows at a low pressure flows at a high pressure
Occurrence Occurs in fishes Occurs in birds and mammals

Circulatory System of Frog

• The circulatory system or blood vascular system of frog is well-developed closed [Link]
includes -

A. Heart
B. Blood vessels D. Blood
1) Arterial system 2) Venous system E. Lymphatic system

• The prime function of this system is to distribute all necessary liquid and oxygen to different
parts of the body, in order to release energy to carry out life activities and also to bring the
excretory and gaseous wastes to organs of elimination, i.e., kidneys and lungs.

Heart

• The muscular heart is the central pumping organ driving blood through the closed circulatory
[Link] is a dark-red coloured, conical or triangular shaped, highly muscular, pulsatile
organ situated mid-ventrally to the liver in the pericardial cavity.
• The heart is enclosed in a two layered, thin membranous sac called pericardium with
pericardial fluid in it. This protects the heart from friction or mechanical shocks, keeps it
moist and permits its movements.
• The heart looks like an angular structure with broader anterior part and narrow posterior part.
• The heart is 3-chambered. The anterior part of the heart contains two dark coloured atria or
auricles, right and left, whereas the posterior part has a single conical and pink-coloured
ventricle which is the most conspicuous and prominent part of the heart.
• The auricles are thin walled chambers and are separated completely by a thin vertical
interauricular septum while the ventricle is an undivided chamber.
• Both the auricles are externally demarcated by a very faint longitudinal interauricular groove.
However, the two auricles are clearly separated from the ventricle by a transverse coronary
sulcus or auriculo-ventricular groove.
• Besides the auricles and ventricle, the heart has two more chambers — a tubular truncus
arteriosus and a triangular sinus venosus.

Sinus Venosus

• Sinus venosus lies on the dorsal surface of the heart. It is a thin-walled, dark-coloured
somewhat triangular chamber which is formed by the union of three caval veins, two anterior
precavals and one posterior postcaval.
• It receives the deoxygenated blood from the body parts by these three large veins – two right
and left precavals bringing the blood from the anterior region and a postcaval bringing the
blood from the posterior region.
• Sinus venosus opens into dorsal wall of right auricle which receives the deoxygenated blood
during contraction through a large transverse oval opening, the sinu-auricular aperture.
• It is guarded by a pair of flap-like sinu-auricular valves, one arising from the dorsal edge and
the other from the ventral. These valves allow the free flow of blood only into the right
auricle but prevent the backward flow of blood.
• In front of the sinus venosus there is a common pulmonary vein which opens into the left
auricle by a small opening without valves. The left auricle receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs through common pulmonary vein.
• According to modern view given by Vandervael (1933) and Foxon (1953), the blood coming
into auricles whether from lungs or sinus venosus is all oxygenated because oxygenation of
blood takes place not only in the lung but also in the skin and the buccal cavity.
Ventricle and Valves

• During simultaneous contraction of both auricles, they open into a single ventricle by a
common large auriculo-ventricular aperture which is bounded by two pairs of flap-like
auriculo-ventricular valves, one arising from the dorsal edge and the other from the ventral
edge of this aperture, and the auricles force their blood into the ventricle.
• The flaps of auriculo-ventricular valves are connected to the wall of ventricle by thread-like
chordae tendineae in order to prevent the flow of blood into the auricles.
• The ventricle is a most conspicuous triangular chamber of the heart with thick muscular,
spongy wall having irregular ridges or columnae carneae with deep pockets between them.
• Because of this spongy texture of the ventricle and the viscous nature of blood, the mixing of
the blood is avoided in the ventricle.

Truncus Arteriosus

• From the ventral upper right side of the ventricle arises a tubular truncus arteriosus which
extends forward obliquely across the right auricle and immediately divides into two
branches, called aortic trunks, each further divides into three arches — carotid, systemic and
pulmocutaneous.
• On contraction of the ventricle blood goes into the truncus arteriosus which is guarded by
three semilunar valves that prevent the backflow of blood from truncus arteriosus into
ventricle.
• The spirally twisted cavity of truncus arteriosus is divided unequally by another set of 3
semilunar valves into a long basal thick-walled conus arteriosus and a short distal thin-
walled ventral or bulbous aorta.
• In front of the ventral aorta the truncus arteriosus divides into two halves, each half is further
divided into a carotid arch, a systemic arch and a pulmonary arch through which the blood is
distributed to all parts of the body.

Blood Vessels

• The blood vessels found in frog include arteries, veins and capillaries.
• Arteries distribute the blood all over the body, veins collect the blood and return it to the
heart and fine capillaries connect arteries and veins.
• The various arteries and veins collectively form the arterial system and venous system
respectively.

1) Arterial System

• The blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood (in most cases) away from the heart to
different parts of the body are called [Link] constitute a system called arterial system.
• In frog, arterial system begins with the truncus arteriosus which divides into two large right
and left aortic trunks.
• Each aortic trunk again divides into three
aortic arches –
a. An anterior carotid arch
b. a middle systemic arch
c. a posterior Pulmocutaneous arch

a. Common Carotid Arch : It is a short vessel

running forward and outward which supply
blood to head region by two branches —
external and internal carotids.

External carotid: It is also called lingual, a

smaller inner branch carrying blood to the
tongue and lower jaw.

Internal carotid: It is the larger outer branch,

carrying blood to the buccal cavity, orbit and
[Link] consists a little swelling at the base
called carotid body or labyrinth whose cavity
contains a network of capillaries and chromaffin
cells. They control blood pressure in the internal carotid [Link] internal carotid divides into 3
branches –
- a palatine carries blood to the roof of the buccal cavity.
- a cerebral carries blood to the brain.
- an ophthalmic carries blood to the eye.

b. Systemic Arch : Systemic arch is the longest of the three arches that supplies blood to most
parts of the body.
• The two systemic arches move upward and then curve backward around the oesophagus and
join with each other behind the heart to form a median dorsal aorta going backward beneath
the vertebral column.
• Before meeting each other each systemic arch gives out three arteries:
(i) A small oesophageal artery supplies blood to the oesophagus.
(ii) Occipito-vertebral artery supplies blood to the head, vertebral column and spinal cord.
(iii) A large subclavian supplies blood to the shoulder region and forelimbs.
• From the junction of two systemic arches a single large coeliaco-mesenteric artery arises
which gives off the following two arteries –
- a small coeliac artery supplies blood to stomach (gastric) and liver (hepatic).
- a large anterior mesenteric artery supplies blood to duodenum (duodenal), pancreas
(duodenal), ileum or small intestine (intestinal) and spleen (splenic).
• From the anterior mesenteric artery arises an unpaired posterior mesenteric artery going to
the large intestine or rectum.
• The dorsal aorta runs backward and gives off the following arteries —
- a pair of small gonadial arteries supplies blood to gonads (ovarian and spermatic).
- 5–6 pairs of small renal arteries supplies blood to both kidneys.
• At the end, the dorsal aorta runs posterior and bifurcates into two large right and left
common iliac arteries.
• Each of iliac arteries gives off the following arteries —
- Femoral artery supplies blood to the skin and muscles of hip and upper thigh.
- Sciatic artery supplies blood to lower legs (hind limbs).
- Epigastric artery supplies blood to the muscles of the thigh and urinary bladder.

c. Pulmocutaneous Arch : Each pulmocutaneous arch divides into two arteries —

- Pulmonary artery carries blood to the lung.
- Cutaneous artery carries blood to the skin and buccal cavity.

2) Venous System

• The blood vessels which collect the deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body and
return it into the heart are called [Link] constitute a system called the venous system.
• The venous system in frog constitutes the
following main veins —
a. Pulmonary veins
b. Caval veins
c. Renal portal veins
d. Hepatic portal veins

a. Pulmonary Veins: The oxygenated blood

from two lungs is returned by right and left
pulmonary veins, which open dorsally into the
left auricle of heart after uniting with each other.

b. Caval Veins :The blood from the rest of the

body travels towards the sinus venosus of heart
through three large vessels — two precavals
(anterior venae cavae) and one postcaval vein
(posterior vena cava).

(i) Anterior venae cavae : The anterior venae

cavae or right and left precavals collect the blood
from the anterior part of body.

• Each precaval or anterior vena cava is formed by the union of three veins:
- External jugular receiving branches from the tongue (lingual) and lower jaw (mandibular).
- Innominat receiving branches from the brain and orbit (internal jugular), and from
shoulder and back of arm (subscapular).
- Subclavian vein receiving branches from arm or forelimb (brachial) and from skin and
muscles of the abdomen and also mucous membrane of mouth and head muscles (musculo-
cutaneous).
(ii) Posterior vena cava or postcaval: The single postcaval is a large, dark coloured vein which
arises at the posterior end between the kidneys and run forward ventral to the dorsal aorta in the
mid-ventral line.

• The postcaval vein receives blood from the following veins:

- by a pair of hepatic veins from the liver before it is communicated with the sinus venosus.
- by 5–6 pairs of renal veins from each kidney.
- by a pair of gonadial veins (spermatic in male and ovarian in female) from gonads directly
or through anterior pair of renal veins.

c. Renal Portal Veins : The veins which collect the blood from the posterior side of the body
constitute renal portal system.

• Two large veins, an outer femoral and an inner sciatic vein collect the blood from each hind-
limb which divide into blood capillaries inside the kidneys.
• On entering the body cavity each femoral vein divides into –
- a ventral pelvic and
- a dorsal renal portal vein.
• The pelvic passes ventrally and meets its fellow from the opposite side forming the anterior
abdominal vein which receives blood from the urinary bladder and ventral abdominal wall
and runs forward to enter into liver by forming capillaries.
• The renal portal vein unites with the sciatic and receives the blood from the body wall of
lumbar region through dorso-lumbar vein.

d. Hepatic Portal Veins

• A large hepatic portal vein is formed by the confluence of many branches from stomach,
intestine, spleen and pancreas.
• It collects the blood from the alimentary canal through many branches and carries it to the
liver where the vein breaks up into capillaries and the blood is collected by the hepatic vein
to pour into the postcaval vein.

Blood

• Blood, the chief circulatory fluid of body, is really a liquid connective tissue.
• It contains a clear liquid, called plasma, in which are suspended various types of free cells,
called blood corpuscles.

i) Plasma

• Plasma is a liquid, non-living component that constitutes about 60% of the blood.
• It is largely water (90%) in which are dissolved mineral salts, absorbed foods (sugars,
proteins), excretory wastes (urea), secretions (hormones), and other soluble substances.
ii) Blood Corpuscles

• Blood corpuscles are living cells

which constitute the remaining
40% of the [Link] blood
corpuscles are mainly of three
types —
i. Erythrocytes
ii. Leucocytes
iii. Thrombocytes

i. Erythrocytes:

• The erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles are oval, flattened, biconvex and nucleated.
• They bear the respiratory pigment, haemoglobin in their cytoplasm which is a yellow to red
iron-containing protein that serves to carry oxygen in the tissues.

ii. Leucocytes:

• The leucocytes also called white blood corpuscles are amoeboid or circular, colourless and
nucleated.
• These are of five types – neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.
• Most of them are phagocytic, ingesting bacteria and other foreign particles that appear in the
blood and remove dead or old tissue cells.

iii. Thrombocytes:

• The thrombocytes or blood platelets are small, spindle shaped and nucleated.
• It helps in transportation of digested food, respiratory gases, hormones and nitrogenous
wastes from one part of the body to another.
• It also plays important role in the immune system and coagulation.

E. Lymphatic System

The blood is distributed to different parts of the body by the arteries.

• During its course of distribution certain portions of fluid plasma along with leucocytes of the
blood escape into spaces (intercellular spaces) in the tissues through the finer blood vessels
or capillaries as they are having very thin walls, most of this fluid is absorbed by blood
capillaries but some of it passes by diffusion into special vessels called the lymph vessels
and is returned to the general circulation through the blood vessels (veins).
• This squeezed fluid from the blood is known as lymph, while the special vessels are the
lymphatic vessels which constitute the lymphatic system.
• It is an open system because lymph flows only in one direction, that is, from the tissues
towards the heart.
• The lymphatic system is made of –
- lymph
- lymph vessels
- lymph hearts
- lymph spaces
- spleen

i) Lymph

• It is a colourless fluid which is a part of

blood without red blood corpuscles and
plasma proteins.
• Blood confined to blood vessels that is
filtered regularly from capillaries into intercellular spaces forming the tissue fluid or lymph
which bathes the tissues and many internal organs.
• It is a medium of exchange between the blood and tissue cells because it carries food and
oxygen to the cells and takes away water and other waste substances from the cells.
• It also has the power to coagulate slowly.

ii) Lymph Vessels : The lymph capillaries found between the tissue cells forming networks in
all the body organs except in the nervous system.

• Lymph capillaries unite to form larger, thin-walled delicate vessels called lymph vessels or
lymphatics which finally discharge their contents into veins, thus returning back to the blood.

iii) Lymph Spaces : In the tissues there are numerous intercellular spaces called lymph spaces
from which arise lymph capillaries, the lymph capillaries unite to form lymph vessels, some of
which dilate to form large lymph channels or sinuses.

iv) Lymph Hearts

• Lymph vessels open into veins through four openings. At each opening, the lymph vessel
forms a small rhythmically contractile sac, called a lymph heart.
• From the diffuse lymphatic system lymph is slowly pumped back into veins by two pairs of
lymph hearts.
• One pair is situated just behind the transverse processes of the third vertebrae, opening into
the subscapular veins.
• Second pair is found on either side at the end of urostyle,they open into the femoral veins.

v) Spleen :

• In the mesentery near the rectum lies a small, round, dark red coloured gland, called the
spleen which contains the largest mass of lymphatic tissue.
• It also acts as a reservoir of blood which destroys the worn out [Link]., and produces
antibodies, new [Link]., and [Link].
 Nervous and Sensory System
The Nervous System Includes:

(a) A central nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord
(b) A peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial and spinal nerves arising from the brain
and spinal cord respectively
(c) An autonomic nervous system made of two ganglionated sympathetic nerves and ganglia in
the head and viscera.

(a) Central Nervous System :It is formed of brain and spinal cord.

a. Brain:

• The brain of frog is a soft, elongated, bilaterally symmetrical, white coloured structure
situated in the cranial cavity of the skull.
• It is surrounded by two connective tissue membranes, called meninges (singular, meninx).
• An inner thin, pigmented and vascular membrane, called piamater, which is closely applied
to the brain and a tough, fibrous outer membrane lining the interior of the cranial cavity
called duramater.
• The space between the piamater and duramater is known as subdural which is filled with a
clear, watery and lymphatic cerebro-spinal fluid which protects and nourishes brain.
• The brain is divisible into three
main parts:
(1) Forebrain or Prosencephalon
(2) Midbrain or Mesencephalon
(3) Hindbrain or
Rhombencephalon

(1) Forebrain or Prosencephalon:

This largest part of brain consists
of:

• A pair of anteriorly directed

olfactory lobes
• A pair of cerebral hemispheres
• A short unpaired diencephalon

i) Olfactory Lobes:

• The two olfactory lobes are anterior small, spherical structures which are fused together in
the median plane.
• Each lobe is joined in front to a small olfactory nerve running to the nasal chamber of its side
and possesses a small cavity rhinocoel or olfactory ventricle.
• These lobes are concerned with smell.
ii) Cerebral Hemispheres:

• The two cerebral hemispheres are long, oval and smooth structures separated from olfactory
lobes by a slight constriction.
• They are wider behind and narrower in front. They are separated from each other by a deep
median longitudinal groove or fissure.
• Each cerebral hemisphere has a large cavity called lateral ventricle or paracoel or I and II
which is continuous anteriorly with the rhinocoel.
• Posteriorly the lateral ventricles communicate with each other and with the ventricle of
diencephalon called diocoel by an opening, the interventricular foramen / foramen of Monro.
• On ventro-lateral side of each of the cerebral hemispheres, there is a thick fibrous tract called
the corpus striatum containing a network of white medullated nerve fibres and nerve cells.
• The corpora striata of two hemispheres are joined by a transversely running tract of fibres
called anterior commissure which have a thick roof called the pallium in which more nerve
cells have moved to the periphery.
• The hemispheres control voluntary functions, intelligence, memory, consciousness, will.

iii) Diencephalon:

• Diencephalon is a short, rhomboid, unpaired structure of the forebrain situated behind the
cerebral hemispheres.
• Its small cavity or diocoel or III ventricle has thick lateral walls called optic thalami (singular
thalamus) and a thick floor is called hypothalamus.
• Its dorsal roof is thin and lined with a vascular membrane, the anterior choroid plexus,
behind which arises a small hollow projection, the pineal body.
• Ventral surface of diencephalon bears the x-shaped optic chiasma formed by the two optic
nerves crossing each other which go the eyes.
• Just behind the optic chiasma is a large median, flattened, bilobed projection called
infundibular lobe or infundibulum extending posteriorly and divided by a median
longitudinal groove which bears a small flattened oval pituitary body or hypophysis.
• It is an important centre regulating the whole endocrine system as well as other parts of the
[Link] is concerned with vision and balance.

(2) Midbrain or Mesencephalon:

• Mid-brain is well developed consisting of dorso-laterally two large rounded optic lobes
which control the vision and two thick longitudinal bands of nerve fibres, called crura
cerebri, run longitudinally beneath optic lobes which act as coordination centres between
fore-brain and hind-brain.
• The cavity of the optic lobes is called optocoel or optic ventricles which communicates with
the third ventricle in front and fourth ventricle behind through a narrow cavity called iter or
aqueduct of Sylvius.
• Between the diencephalon and optic lobes there is a band of nerve fibres lying transversely
called posterior commissure.
• The optic lobes inhibit spinal cord reflexes and each controls the opposite side of body.
(3) Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon:

The posterior part of the brain includes:

i) Cerebellum
ii) Medulla oblongata

i) Cerebellum: It is a poorly developed

narrow transverse solid ridge or band, placed
dorsally just behind the optic [Link] controls
equilibrium and muscular coordination.

ii) Medulla Oblongata:

• Medulla oblongata is short and somewhat triangular structure which is simply a widening of
the spinal cord.
• Its cavity is also triangular called metacoel or fourth ventricle which is joined in front to the
iter and posteriorly with central cavity of the spinal cord.
• On the dorsal roof of the metacoel there is a thin, highly vascular, triangular area of reddish
brown colour which is called the posterior choroid plexus.
• Medulla controls impor..t involuntary functions such as heart beat,metabolism,respiration etc.

b. Spinal Cord:

• The spinal cord extends posteriorly from medulla

oblongata through an aperture called foramen
magnum and lies protected within the neural canal
of vertebral column
• It is short, thick, cylindrical, somewhat flattened
and white in colour.
• Like brain, it is also surrounded by the two
meninges, piamater and duramater which protect
and nourish cerebro-spinal fluid.
• Posteriorly it terminates in a tapering narrow
thread called filum terminale lying in the urostyle.
The filum terminale with the nerve roots on either side is sometimes called cauda equina as it
looks like a horse tail.
• It presents two enlargements or swellings during its course:
– Branchial enlargement between forelimbs
– Sciatic or lumbar swelling anterior to filum terminale.
• It is traversed throughout its length by two longitudinal grooves, the mid dorsal called dorsal
fissure and the mid-ventral, known as ventral fissure respectively. These two fissures almost
completely divide the spinal cord into two symmetrical halves.
• The spinal cord is made of inner grey matter, largely of nerve cells surrounding the central
canal and outer white matter composed chiefly of nerve fibres surrounding the grey matter.
• It is mainly concerned with the reflex actions.
What is Autonomic Nervous System?

• The autonomic nervous system is so called because it is partly independent and not under
voluntary control.
• It simply regulates the functions of certain organs which are involuntary.
• It is not independent because it is intimately bound structurally and functionally with central
and peripheral nervous system.
• It is simply concerned with the intestinal regulation of the body with the central nervous
system together with its spinal and cranial nerves and is concerned with the external
regulations.

How Does Portal Blood Circulation Differ from Typical Blood Circulation?

• Usually, veins carry blood toward the heart rather than to other organs.
• Hepatic portal system (portal venous system) is an exception to this rule.
• The veins in this system send blood from alimentary canal to the liver, rather than directly to
the heart.
• This circulation of nutrient-rich blood between the gut and liver is called the portal circulation.
• It enables the liver to remove any harmful substances that may have been digested before the
blood enters the main blood circulation.

Write Down the Functions and Locations of Cranial Nerves of Amphibians

No. Name of Nerve Function/Type Location

1 Olfactory Sensory nerves for Walls of nasal chambers
smell
2 Optic Sensory nerves for Retina of the eyes
vision
3 Oculo-Motor Motor nerves 4 muscles of the eye namely (superior
rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus,
inferior oblique muscles)
4 Trochlear Motor nerves Superior oblique muscle of the eye
5 Trigeminal Sensory and motor Muscles of the jaws, skin of the face,
nerves mouth and the tongue
6 Abducens Motor nerves Lateral or external rectus muscle of the
eye
7 Facial Motor and sensory Muscles of the face and throat
(mostly motor)
8 Auditory Sensory nerves for Inner ear
hearing and equilibrium
9 Glossopharyngeal Sensory and motor Floor of the mouth, tongue and pharynx
nerves
10 Vagus or Sensory and motor Larynx, lungs, heart, esophagus,
Pneumogastric nerves stomach and small intestine
What is Sensory and Motor Nerves?

• Sensory nerves or nerve fibres are those which carry the impulses from the receptors to the
central nervous system, whereas the motor nerves or nerve fibres are those which carry the
impulses of appropriate order from the central nervous system to the effector organs.
• In frog, the following four systems of nerve fibres are recognized:

1. Somatic sensory 3. Visceral sensory

2. Somatic motor 4. Visceral motor

Sense Organs

• The sensory system includes various types of receptors or organs of special sense which receive
sensations or stimuli due to changes in the external or internal environment.
• These sensory organs are supplied with nerve fibres which carry nervous impulses from sense
organs to the central nervous system where they are interpreted as characteristic sensations.
• Each kind of stimulus affects a particular sense organ.
• Frog has five special sense organs:
i) Tangoreceptors or organs of touch
ii) Olfactoreceptors or organs of smell
iii) Gustatoreceptors or organs of taste
iv) Photoreceptors or organs of sight
v) Statoacoustic receptors or organs of hearing and balance

(i) Tangoreceptors or Organs of Touch

• The entire skin of frog serves as organs of touch because numerous microscopic cutaneous
sense organs or tangoreceptors are present under epidermis of skin. It is abundantly supplied
with simple networks of sensory nerve endings situated in the spaces between the cells or
compact groups of cells forming corpuscles which project into papillae of epidermis. Such
groups of cells are called tactile organs or patches.
• The tactile organs make the skin of the frog very much sensitive to various types of stimuli
such as touch, temperature, chemicals, humidity, light, pain etc.

(ii) Olfactoreceptors or Organs of Smell

• These are the organs which are simply concerned with distinguishing the various kinds of
smell given off from different substances or things.
• These include a pair of olfactory or nasal chambers whose epithelial lining forms the
olfactoreceptor or the organ of smell which are located in the olfactory capsules of the skull.
It contains tall olfactory receptor cells with tufts of fine cilia on their outer ends and nerve
fibres attached to their inner ends. The fibres unite to form the olfactory nerve which carries
the sensations about odours to brain.
(iii) Gustatoreceptors or Organs of Taste

• Gustatoreceptors or organs of taste are found in the form of taste buds which are confined
chiefly in small papillae over the tongue and the floor and roof of the buccal cavity.
• Each taste bud is more or less spherical body consisting of elongated spindle-like receptor
cells or taste cells ending in fine hair-like processes for sampling food which is taken into
mouth, some of which are neurosensory and others are supporting cells which are found in
association with taste cells.
• Taste buds of frog are supplied by the branches of the VII and IX cranial nerves which send
stimuli to brain.

(iv) Photoreceptors or Organs of Sight

• The organs of sight are two spherical eyes which are situated in the orbital fossae on either
side of the head. The one-third part of eye is visible externally which is transparent but
remaining two-third part lies hidden in the orbit which is opaque. The eyes are protected by
two eyelids — the upper is immovable and the lower one is movable.
• There is a nictitating membrane, a transparent part of the upper border of the lower eyelid
which lies folded beneath the opaque part of the lower eyelid. It covers the eyes when the
frog goes inside the water or underground. Its movement is controlled by means of two types
of muscles, the retractor bulbi and the levator bulbi.
• On the contraction of the retractor bulbi muscles, the eyeball is drawn deep into the orbit due
to which the eyelids come nearer and the nictitating membrane is unfolded over the eye. On
the contraction of the levator bulbi muscles the eyelids are separated with protrude eye that
results in the folding back of the nictitating membrane to its original position.
• The eyeball is moved by a set of six extrinsic muscles attached to its posterior wall:
✓ Four rectus muscles (anterior rectus, posterior rectus, superior rectus and inferior rectus)
rotate the eyeball forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards respectively.
✓ The other two muscles are external oblique muscles which bring about the rotation of the
eyeball along the axis and internal oblique muscles bring just the opposite movement.

Structure of the Eye

The wall of eyeball is made of three

concentric layers or coats:
a. An outermost sclerotic
b. A middle choroid
c. An inner retina

a. Sclerotic

• It is the outermost thick, protective layer

which is made by tough white fibrous
connective tissue and cartilage. Its anterior
exposed and raised circular part is
modified into the transparent cornea to permit entry of light rays into the eye.
• Cornea is covered externally by a thin transparent membrane called conjunctiva which is the
continuation of skin.
• A continuation of the inner membrane of lower eyelid forms the transparent nictitating
membrane which protects the outer exposed surface of the eye.
• Both membranes are lubricated and kept moist by the secretion of a Harderian gland found in
the orbit.

b. Choroid

• Choroid is the middle highly vascular and darkly pigmented layer made of loose connective
tissue fibres which prevents all light except that entering through cornea.
• Towards the anterior side it thickens as a ring-like ciliary body having ciliary muscles and
then separates from the sclerotic forming a vertical pigmented circular disc called iris with a
central opening, the pupil, which looks like a black spot through which light can enter.
• Within the iris there are two sets of involuntary muscles, circular and radial, which reduce or
increase the opening of pupil.
• There are dorsal and ventral protector lentis muscles which are attached inside to the ciliary
body and outside to the cornea.
• Immediately behind the pupil is a large, circular and transparent crystalline lens which is
enclosed in a delicate lens capsule. It is suspended behind the pupil by a membranous
suspensory ligament from ciliary body.
• The small anterior aqueous chamber of eye between cornea and lens is filled with a watery
fluid, aqueous humour, and the larger posterior vitreous chamber behind the lens contains a
jelly-like substance, vitreous humour.

c. Retina

• It is the innermost sensitive layer present only in the posterior part of eyeball behind ciliary
body. It is made of several layers. The outermost layer is formed of pigment cells lining the
choroid and beneath it lie the sensory layer of cells, the rods and cones, followed by several
layers of other sensory cells.
• The innermost layer is formed by nerve fibres which converge to form the optic nerve.
• Light falling on retina stimulates rods and cones and the impulses are conducted by optic
nerve to brain.
• The spot where optic nerve comes out of the eyeball is called the blind spot, which has no
rods and cones and does not form an image. Near it lies the yellow spot.
• The posterior part of the retina just opposite to the lens is called the area of centralis or
yellow spot which contains only cones and has yellow pigment; the most distinct images are
normally formed on this area.

(v) Statoacoustic Receptors or Organs of Hearing and Balance

• The statoacoustic organ is for hearing and equilibrium. It includes a pair of ears attached to
the postero-lateral sides of skull enclosed in auditory capsules.
• There is no external ear in frog. The ear of frog includes a middle ear and an internal ear.
a. Middle Ear

• The middle ear consists of all those structures which simply transmit the sound waves to the
internal ear that acts as suspensory apparatus.
• The cavity of middle ear is called the tympanic cavity bounded externally by a dark, flat,
circular patch of skin, the tympanic membrane or eardrum which is tightly stretched over a
ring-like cartilage, annulus tympanicus. It is vibratile in nature with air.
• The middle ear cavity is an air-filled chamber communicating with the pharynx ventrally
through a slender canal, the Eustachian tube; the opening is normally kept closed by a valve.
• A slender club-like rod of bone and cartilage, the columella auris, extends across the
tympanic cavity. Its outer end is attached to the eardrum and inner end to a membrane and a
cartilaginous small nodule, the stapedial plate, which is fused over a small window-like oval
aperture, fenestra ovalis (a hole in the auditory capsule).

b. Internal Ear

• The internal ear consists of a bony auditory capsule which is cartilaginous in the beginning
but later in the adult is bony. It is formed by the pro-otic and exoccipital bones.
• The auditory capsule is filled with a watery fluid called perilymph in which the complicated
inner ear or membranous labyrinth floats which is partially supported by connective tissue.
• The entire membranous labyrinth is hollow and is filled with a fluid called endolymph which
contains pieces of calcium carbonate forming otoliths or ear stones.
• The membranous labyrinth is a sac-like body or vestibule consisting of a larger oblong
utriculus on the dorsal side and the smaller oval sacculus on the ventral side.
• From the posterior side of the sacculus arise two small rounded diverticula, the lagena or
cochlea and the pars basilaris. Above these is the protuberance of utriculus, called the pars
neglecta.
• From the inner dorsal end of the sacculus arises a small, narrow tube, the ductus
endolymphaticus which contains a milky fluid of calcium carbonate and terminates in an
expanded thin-walled endolymphatic sac present over the hindbrain within skull.
• The various parts of the membranous labyrinth are innervated by the fibres of the auditory
nerve which carry impulses to the brain. From tympanum, vibrations are finally transmitted
 to endolymph of membranous labyrinth and stimulate the sensory hair cells of sacculus and
lagena. The nerve impulses reaching brain through auditory nerve are perceived as sound.
• The three semicircular canals arise from the utriculus, are arranged at right angles with one
another; these are — anterior and posterior vertical semicircular canals, while the third is a
horizontal semicircular canal.
• Only one end of each canal is slightly swollen into a small, round ampulla.
• The semicircular canals along with their ampullae and the utriculus are concerned with the
maintenance of equilibrium of the body as their sensory hair cells carry nerve impulses to
brain due to any change in the position of body.

Urinogenital System

• Since the excretory and reproductive systems are closely associated, hence, it is customary to
call the two systems together as a urogenital or urinogenital system, though both are
unrelated [Link] frog the sexes are separate, so the urinogenital organs can be
described under the following heads:

1. Excretory System

• The excretory system in both male and female is similar and includes
1. a pair of kidneys, 3. a urinary bladder, and
2. a pair of ureters (ducts), 4. a cloaca

a. Kidneys

• Both the kidneys are elongated, compact, flattened and dark red in colour. They lie
posteriorly which are found in the lymph spaces (subvertebral lymph sinus) outside the
abdominal coelom attached on either side of vertebral column. These are covered ventrally
by [Link] ventral surface of each kidney has an elongated narrow yellow adrenal
gland of endocrine function.
• To the anterior end of each kidney numerous small finger-like fat bodies and a testis (in
male) or an ovary (in female) are attached.
• In tadpole the kidneys are pronephros, whereas in adult these are mesonephros.

b. Ureters

• From the posterior smooth convex outer margin of each kidney arises a mesonephric or
Wolffian duct or ureter. It is a fine, white tube which passes backwards to open into the dorsal
wall of the cloaca and both the openings are located on two separate [Link] male frog,the
ureters are called urinogenital ducts since they pass out sperms as well as urine.

c. Urinary Bladder

• It is a large, transparent, bilobed, thin-walled, elastic structure. It opens into the ventral wall
of cloaca by a sphinctered aperture opposite and below the openings of ureters.
d. Cloaca

• It is a small, medium sac into which open the anus, urinogenital apertures and urinary
[Link] opens to outside by a sphinctered cloacal aperture lying at the posterior end
of the body between the bases of two hindlimbs.

2. Male Reproductive System : Male reproductive system includes a pair of testes attached to
kidneys, numerous vasa efferentia and a pair of urinogenital ducts. Copulatory organs are absent.

a. Testis

• The testis are rounded or ovoid, light yellow bodies attached to the antero-ventral surfaces of
the kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum, called mesorchium.
• Just in front of each testis, numerous branched yellowish finger-like fat bodies arise which
provide reserve food, act as a sort of storehouse of nutrients, used to nourish the developing
spermatozoa and during hibernation.
• Histologically each testis is a compact mass of much coiled seminiferous tubules, the
epithelial lining of which produces spermatozoa by spermatogenesis.

b. Vasa Efferentia

• All the seminiferous tubules in a testes are connected to form 10 or 12 narrow tubes, the vasa
efferentia arising from the inner margin of testis and extend within the mesorchium and then
enter the inner margin of the kidney to open into the Bidders’ canal.
• The Bidders’ canal communicates with the ureter through collecting tubules of kidney. Thus
vasa efferentia conduct mature spermatozoa from testis to the ureter of kidney.

c. Urinogenital Duct

• Ureter in male frog is a urinary duct as well as a vas deferens to convey the urine and
spermatozoa. Hence, it is called a urinogenital duct.
• Both the ureters open into the dorsal wall of cloaca separately on two urinogenital papillae.
• The urinogenital ducts are enlarged just posterior to the kidneys forming seminal vesicles for
temporary storage of spermatozoa.

3. Female Reproductive System : Female reproductive system includes a pair of ovaries and a
pair of oviducts.

a. Ovaries

• Both the ovaries are attached to the dorsal abdominal wall, close to the kidneys, supported by
peritoneal fold called mesovarium.
• The ovaries are large, irregularly folded, multilobed, hollow sac-like greyish or blackish
structures composed of a number of ovarian follicles,each containing countless dark round
[Link] breeding season the ovaries become greatly enlarged. Each ovary has an outer layer or
germinal epithelium enclosed in a capsule.
• Ova arise from the germinal epithelial lining by oogenesis. When ripe, the ova are shed by
the rupture of ovarian wall into the body cavity from where they are moved by cilia of
peritoneum into the ostia of [Link] front of each ovary, fat bodies are also attached just
as in male frog.

b. Oviducts

• On each side is a long and much coiled white glandular tube not connected directly to the
ovaries called oviduct or Mullerian duct.
• It starts by a thin-walled ciliated coelomic or oviducal funnel whose openings are called
ostia, placed quite anteriorly in the body cavity at the base of lungs one on either side of
oesophagus.
• At the posterior end near cloaca, each oviduct dilates to form a thin-walled ovisac called
uterus which opens by a narrow aperture on a papilla in the cloaca.
• Oviducts become much enlarged and coiled just before the breeding season.
• The eggs escape from the surface of the ovary into the coelom and are directed by cilia into
the oviduct and are temporarily stored in the ovisacs.
• During their passage through the oviducts the eggs are coated with layers of albumen which
probably prevent overcrowding and protect from infections and predators.
Differences between exothermic and endothermic animals?
Feature Exothermic Animals Endothermic Animals
Definition Animals whose body temperature Animals that can maintain a
depends on the external environment constant body temperature
internally
Also called Cold-blooded Warm-blooded
Source of body From the environment (sun, air, From metabolic activities inside the
heat water) body
Body Changes with the surroundings Remains constant, even if the
temperature environment changes
Energy use Use less energy for maintaining body Use more energy (food) to keep
temperature body warm
Activity level Less active in cold weather Active in both cold and warm
conditions
Examples Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles Birds, Mammals