Methods of Analysis in Yield Line Theory
Based on the rules and the assumptions, a general load pattern and the axis of rotation
is located. The below mentioned methods can be used to determine the final pattern,
axes of rotation and the collapse load. The methods used are:
1. Method of Segmental Equilibrium
2. Method of Virtual Work
1. Methods of Segmental Equilibrium
As the name says, the collapse of the slab under certain mechanism will give several
segments. The equilibrium of the segments is taken into consideration and hence to
arrive at set of simultaneous equations. The solution of the simultaneous equations
will give certain parameter values that will help us to finalise the yield pattern. This
will also give us a relation between the load capacity and the moment value. As
shown in figure-4, each segment is studied as a free body. Each segment is under
equilibrium under the action of moment, loads along the yield lines. The reactions and
shear will be along the supports. Here, the twisting moments along the yield lines will
be zero. From figure-4,Considering segments AOB, about axis of rotation 1-1
The vector sum of moments along AO & OB = Moments due to the loads on the
segment AOB For a small element of length dx and dy, the governing equation of
equilibrium is given:
Here, External
load acting per unit area = w Bending Moments per unit width x and y = Mx & My
Twisting Moment = Mxy
2. Method of Virtual Work
The principle of virtual work is followed in this method. Virtual Work principle states
that, The external work done by the loads to cause small virtual deflection is equal to
the small internal work done by the yield moments to make a rotation to
accommodate the virtual deflection. Here, the slab is assumed with a yield pattern and
axes of rotation. The system is in equilibrium with the moments and loads acting on
it. This system is subjected to an infineitesimal increase in load so that the structure
will undergo further delflection. Based on the principle, the internal and the external
works is equated hence giving a relationship between the applied loads and the
ultimate resisting moments. The work equation is given by:
Where, Collapse Load = w Vertical Deflection along which load “w” moves = D
Moment capacity per unit length of the section = M Rotation of the slab segment = ?
Length of Yield Line = l
Torsion
Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. It's a type of stress that
occurs when a force is applied to an object in a way that tends to cause it to rotate
about its longitudinal axis.
1. Equilibrium torsion:
where the torsional moment is required to maintain equilibrium of the structure. In
such situation the external load has no other option but to be carried by torsion (see
Fig. a). Equilibrium torsion is of primary interest in design because failure of the
member is inevitable if it has insufficient torsional strength.
2. Compatibility Torsion:
torsion caused due to the resultant of angular rotation induced by rigidly connected
members. It arises from the requirement of continuity, i.e., compatibility of
deformation between adjacent parts of a structure (see Fig b).
Although such torsion may result in the formation large cracks at the joint, more
serious consequences are unlikely if the member possess adequate ductility to
redistribute the torsional moments. For this reason compatibility torsion is
generally of secondary interest in design and can often be ignored.
Discuss in detail the concept of redistribution with support of
example and how it is treated in ES EN 2015 building code?
Redistribution in concrete structures refers to the phenomenon where internal
bending moments are redistributed within a continuous reinforced concrete member,
typically beams, after the formation of plastic hinges. This redistribution occurs due to
the ductile behavior of steel reinforcement and the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of
concrete.
Example of Redistribution
Consider a simply supported reinforced concrete beam subjected to a concentrated
load at mid-span. Initially, the bending moment diagram would show a peak at the
mid-span and zero moments at the supports. As the load increases, the concrete at the
mid-span reaches its ultimate compressive strain, forming a plastic hinge.
At this point, the beam's stiffness reduces, and the load is redistributed to adjacent
sections. This redistribution continues until a mechanism forms, leading to collapse.
The final bending moment diagram would show a more uniform distribution of
moments along the beam's length.
Redistribution in EN 1992 (Eurocode 2)
EN 1992, the Eurocode for concrete structures, acknowledges the phenomenon of
redistribution and provides guidelines for its consideration in design. The code allows
for a limited redistribution of moments in statically indeterminate structures, provided
certain conditions are met:
Rotational Capacity: The sections where redistribution occurs must have sufficient
rotational capacity to accommodate the redistributed moments. This is typically
achieved by providing adequate reinforcement.
Control of Deflections: The redistribution should not significantly increase the
deflection of the structure.
Limit on Redistribution: The code specifies limits on the amount of redistribution
that can be considered. Typically, the redistribution is limited to a certain percentage
of the initial elastic moment.
Treatment of Redistribution in EN 1992
EN 1992 provides two approaches for considering redistribution in design:
Simplified Method: This method allows for a limited redistribution of moments
based on predefined rules and tables. It is suitable for common structural
configurations.
Advanced Method: This method involves more detailed analysis, considering the
nonlinear behavior of materials and the formation of plastic hinges. It is used for
complex structures or when a more accurate assessment of redistribution is required.
What makes flat slab different from other type rc slabs and in
which situation do we prefer or not prefer the flat slab?
A flat slab with column heads is a two-way reinforced concrete element that
combines a flat slab with enlarged column heads. It provides enhanced load
distribution and helps withstand pointed shear forces. This flooring system is most
commonly used in multi-storey structures.
Characteristics of Flat Slab with Column Heads
Flat Slab without Beams
A flat slab is a reinforced concrete structure that has a flat surface without beams.
The design of this floor structure is simple, yet efficient in transferring loads
downwards. The beamless structure keeps the ceiling below uninterrupted, allowing a
clean and flat surface for other equipment installation.
Column Heads
Column heads are enlarged sections that are placed in between the flat slab and the
columns and help in transferring load below. The large head portion helps in
distributing the loads effectively by increasing the contact area and helps fight against
shear forces.
Load Distribution and Shear Resistance
This flooring system can withstand heavy loads without failure and helps in the
efficient transfer of loads. The main purpose of this construction is to reduce the
effect of punching shear forces that act around the slab-column interface.
Design Flexibility
The beamless design allows the flat slab to provide uninterrupted open spaces ideal
for buildings that require flexible layouts. They provide flexibility in the placement of
columns, due to effective load distribution.
Structural Stability
The installation of enlarged column heads enhances the stability of the slab and
improves the overall structural integrity by reducing the chance of any failure.
Applications of Flat Slabs with Column Heads
Commercial Structures
This flooring system is ideal for multi-storey commercial structures such as offices,
retail spaces, shopping malls, and conference halls, where open surfaces and column-
free spaces are crucial for maximum utilisation of spaces.
Parking Garages
The absence of beams and flexible placement of columns are ideal for multi-story
parking garages and ensure hassle-free movement of vehicles.
Industrial Buildings
They can be used for the construction of industrial buildings such as factories and
warehouses, where uninterrupted usable spaces and flexible design for the installation
of machines, equipment and storage spaces are crucial.
Hospitals and Healthcare Facilities
This structure is highly suitable for hospitals and healthcare facilities, where flexible
design for equipment installation, maximum utilisation of space, and minimal
obstruction are crucial.
Educational Institutions
The unobstructed design of this flooring system helps in the utilisation of maximum
space for classrooms, lecture halls, and library spaces, making them ideal for
educational institutions.
High Traffic Areas
The smooth and open ceilings, design flexibility, efficient load distribution and
large, open spaces make such slabs ideal for places with high human traffic such as
hotels, airport terminals, stadiums, arenas, community centres, lounges, waiting
rooms and more.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Flat Slabs with Column Heads
Advantages
This flooring system is highly cost-effective, limiting the amount spent on
formwork, as it doesn’t require separate formwork for beams.
They provide good resistance and stability against pointed shear forces, protecting
the structure from failure.
The usage of less formwork increases the construction speed.
The beamless structure provides open and flexible floor plans, giving full
architectural freedom to relocate partitions and create adaptable, and usable spaces
The clean and open appearance distributes natural light evenly throughout the space,
thereby enhancing the overall aesthetic looks.
Disadvantages
The designing process of the flat slab with column heads is complex, as it requires
careful calculation and analysis of shear strength, especially around the column heads.
This integrated structure might experience limitations in span between columns, due
to loads and other factors.
This flooring type has the risk of high deflection compared to traditional floor
finishing with beams and girders.