Microelectronics

Circuit Analysis and Design

Donald A. Neamen

Chapter 5

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-1

McGraw-Hill
In this chapter, we will:

q Discuss the physical structure and operation of

the bipolar junction transistor.
q Understand the dc analysis and design
techniques of bipolar transistor circuits.
q Examine three basic applications of bipolar
transistor circuits.
q Investigate various dc biasing schemes of bipolar
transistor circuits, including integrated circuit
biasing.
q Consider the dc biasing of multistage or multi-
transistor circuits.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-2

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Bipolar Transistor Physical Structure

q Consists of 3 alternating layers of n-

and p-type semiconductor called
emitter (E), base (B) and collector
(C).
q Majority of current enters the
collector, crosses the base region and
exits through the emitter. A small
current also enters the base terminal,
crosses the base-emitter junction and
exits through the emitter.
q Carrier transport in the the active
base region directly beneath the
heavily doped (n+) emitter dominates
the i-v characteristics of BJT.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-3

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 Cross Section of Integrated Circuit
npn Transistor

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-4

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 Modes of Operation
q Forward-Active
Ø B-E junction is forward biased
Ø B-C junction is reverse biased
q Saturation
Ø B-E and B-C junctions are forward biased
q Cut-Off
Ø B-E and B-C junctions are reverse biased
q Inverse-Active (or Reverse-Active)
Ø B-E junction is reverse biased
Ø B-C junction is forward biased

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-5

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 npn BJT in Forward-Active

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-6

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 Electrons and Holes in npn BJT

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-7

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 Electrons and Holes in pnp BJT

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-8

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 Current Relationships

iE = iC + iB
iC = biB
iE = (1 + biB )
iC = aiE
a
b=
1-a

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-9

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 Circuit Symbols and
Current Conventions

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-10

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-11
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Transport Model for the npn Transistor
• Base-emitter voltage vBE and
base-collector voltage vBC
determine currents in transistor
and are said to be positive when
they forward-bias their
respective pn junctions.
• The terminal currents are
q Narrow width of the base
collector current(iC ), base
region causes coupling
between the two back-to- current (iB) and emitter current
back pn junctions. (iE).
q Emitter injects electrons • Primary difference between
into base region, almost all BJT and FET is that iB is
travel across narrow base significant while iG = 0.
and are removed by
collector
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-12
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 npn Transistor
Forward Characteristics
Base current iB is given by
iF I S * # vBE & -
iB = = ,exp% ( −1/ 20 ≤ βF ≤ 500
βF βF + $ VT ' .

bF is the forward common-emitter current gain

€ Emitter current iE is
I S * # vBE & - βF
iE = iC + iB = ,exp% ( −1/ αF =
α F + $ VT ' . βF +1
Forward transport current is
0.95 ≤ α F ≤ 1
) "v % ,
iC = iF = I S +exp$ BE ' −1. aF is the forward common-base current gain
* # VT & -
In this forward-active region of operation
IS is the BJT saturation current€
iC iC
10 −18 A ≤ I S ≤ 10 −9 A βF = αF =
€ iB iE

€ Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-13

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€
 npn Transistor
Reverse Characteristics
bR is the reverse common-emitter current gain
0 ≤ βR ≤ 0.95
Base currents in forward and reverse modes
are different due to asymmetric doping levels
in emitter and collector regions.
€
Collector current iC is given by
Emitter current iE is
I S * $ vBC ' -
)
% vBC (
# & ,
iC = iB − iE = ,exp& ) −1/
iE = −iR = IS +exp%
+
−1.. α R + % VT ( .
+* V
$ T '
(
.-

Base current iB is given by aR is the reverse common-base current gain

€ iR IS v* # & - βR
iB = = exp
V
,
,
% BC (
% (
/
−1
/
€ αR = 0 ≤ α R ≤ 0.95
βR βR ,+ $ T ' /. βR +1

€ Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-14

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npn Transistor
Complete Transport Model - Valid for
Any Bias
( ! vBE $ ! vBC $+ I S ( ! vBC $ +
iC = I S *exp # & − exp # &- − *exp # & −1-
) " VT % " VT %, β R ) " VT % ,
( ! vBE $ ! vBC $+ I S ( ! vBE $ +
iE = I S *exp # & − exp # &- + *exp # & −1-
) " VT % " VT %, β F ) " VT % ,
IS ( ! vBE $ + I S ( ! vBC $ +
iB = *exp # & −1- − *exp # & −1-
β F ) " VT % , β R ) " VT % ,

First term in both emitter and collector current expressions gives current
transported completely across base region.
Symmetry exists between base-emitter and base-collector voltages in
establishing dominant current in bipolar transistor.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-15

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 Transport Model Calculations
Example
q Problem: Find terminal voltages and
currents.
q Given data: VBB = 0.75 V, VCC = 5.0 V, IS =
10-16 A, bF = 50, bR = 1
q Assumptions: Room temperature operation,
VT = 25.0 mV.
q Analysis: VBE = 0.75 V,
VBC = VBB - VCC = 0.75 V- 5.00V = - 4.25 V

−16
( " 0.75 % " −4.25 %+ 10 € −16 ( " −4.25 % +
I C = 10 *exp $ ' − exp $ '- − * exp $ ' −1- = 1.07 mA
) # 0.025 & # 0.025 &, 1 ) # 0.025 & ,
−16
( " 0.75 % " −4.25 %+ 10 −16 ( " 0.75 % + IC
I E = 10 *exp $ ' − exp $ '- + * exp $ ' −1- = 1.09mA βF = = 50.0
) # 0.025 & # 0.025 &, 50 ) # 0.025 & , IB
10 −16 ( " 0.75 % + 10 −16 ( " −4.25 % + IC
IB = * exp $ ' −1 - − * exp $ ' −1- = 21.4 µ A αF = = 0.982
50 ) # 0.025 & , 1 ) # 0.025 & , IE

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-16

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pnp Transistor Structure

q Voltages vEB and vCB are positive when they

forward bias their respective pn junctions.
q Collector current and base current exit transistor
terminals and emitter current enters the device.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-17

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pnp Transistor
Forward Characteristics
Base current iB is given by
iF IS ( ! vEB $ +
iB = = *exp # & −1-
β F β F ) " VT % ,
i
iB = C
βF

Emitter current iE is given by

Collector current iC equals the ! 1 $( ! vEB $ +
iE = iC + iB = I S #1+ &*exp # & −1-
forward transport current is " β F %) " VT % ,
( ! vEB $ + IS ( ! vEB $ + iC
iC = iF = I S *exp # & −1- iE = iC + iB = *exp # & −1- =
) " VT % , α F ) " VT % , α F

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-18

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pnp Transistor
Reverse Characteristics
Base current iB is given by
iF IS ( ! vCB $ +
iB = = *exp # & −1-
β R β R ) " VT % ,
i
iB = E
βR

Collector current iC is given by

" 1 %( " vCB % +
iC = iB − iE = I S $ +1'*exp $ ' −1-
Emitter current iE is the negative # β R &) # VT & ,
of the reverse transport current is
IS ( " vCB % + iE
( iC = *exp $ ' −1- =
" vCB % + α R ) # VT & , α R
iE = −iR = −I S *exp $ ' −1-
) # VT & ,

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-19

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pnp Transistor
Complete Transport Model Equations for
Any Bias
( ! vEB $ ! vCB $+ I S ( ! vCB $ +
iC = I S *exp # & − exp # &- − *exp # & −1-
) " VT % " VT %, β R ) " VT % ,
( ! vEB $ ! vCB $+ I S ( ! vEB $ +
iE = I S *exp # & − exp # &- + *exp # & −1-
) " VT % " VT %, β F ) " VT % ,
IS ( ! vEB $ + I S ( ! vCB $ +
iB = *exp # & −1- − *exp # & −1-
β F ) " VT % , β R ) " VT % ,
First term in both emitter and collector current expressions gives
current transported completely across base region.
Symmetry exists between base-emitter and base-collector voltages in
establishing dominant current in bipolar transistor.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-20

McGraw-Hill
Transport Model Circuit
Representations

In npn transistor (expressions are analogous for pnp transistors), the total current
traversing base is modeled by a current source given by:
( " vBE % " vBC %+
iT = iF − I R = I S *exp $ ' − exp $ '-
) V
# T & V
# T &,
Diode currents correspond directly to the two components of base current.
IS ( ! vBE $ + I S ( ! vBC $ +
iB = *exp # & −1- − *exp # & −1-
β F ) " VT % , β R ) " VT % ,

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-21

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Operation Regions of Bipolar
Transistors
Base-Emitter
Base-Collector Junction
Junction

Reverse Bias Forward Bias

Forward-Active
Saturation Region
Forward Bias Region
(Closed Switch)
(Good Amplifier) Binary Logic
Reverse-Active States
Cutoff Region
Reverse Bias Region
(Open Switch)
(Poor Amplifier)

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-22

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 Common-Emitter Configurations

(a) with an npn transistor, (b) with a pnp transistor,

and (c) with a pnp transistor biased with a positive voltage source

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-23

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 i-v Characteristics of Bipolar Transistors
Common-Emitter Output Characteristics

For iB = 0, the transistor is cutoff. If iB > 0, iC

also increases.

For vCE > vBE, npn transistor is in forward-active

region, iC = bF iB is nearly independent of vCE.
For vCE < vBE, transistor is in saturation.

For vCE < 0, roles of collector and emitter

reverse.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-24

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i-v Characteristics of Bipolar Transistors
Common-Emitter Transfer Characteristic
Defines relation between collector current
and base-emitter voltage of transistor.
Almost identical to transfer characteristic
of a pn junction diode
Setting vBC = 0 in the collector-current
expression yields
( ! vBE $ +
iC = I S *exp # & −1-
) " VT % ,
Collector current expression has the same
form as that of the diode equation

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-25

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 Common-Base Configuration
withconstant current source biasing

an npn transistor a pnp transistor

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-26

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 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a
Common-Base Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-27

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 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a
Common-Emitter Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-28

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 i-v Characteristics of Bipolar Transistors
Common-Base Output Characteristics

For vCB > 0, npn transistor is in the forward-

active region. iC ≅ iE is nearly independent of
and vCE.

For vCB < 0, base-collector diode becomes

forward-biased and iC grows exponentially (in
negative direction) as base-collector diode
begins to conduct.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-29

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 Early Voltage/Finite Output
Resistance

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-30

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 Nonideal Transistor Leakage Currents and
Breakdown Voltage
Leakage Currents

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-31

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 Effects of Leakage Currents
on I-V Characteristics

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-32

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 Effect of Collector-Base Breakdown
on Common Base I-V Characteristics

The iC versus vCB common-base characteristics,

showing the collector–base junction breakdown
Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-33
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 Effect of Collector-Base Breakdown on
Common Emitter I-V Characteristics

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-34

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 DC Equivalent Circuit for
npn Common Emitter

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-35

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 DC Equivalent Circuit for
npn Common Emitter

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-36

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-37
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-38
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 DC Equivalent Circuit for
pnp Common Emitter

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-39

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 DC Equivalent Circuit for
pnp Common Emitter

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-40

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-41
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 Load Line and Mode of Operation

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-42

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 Load Line and Mode of Operation

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-43

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-44
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-45
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 Problem-Solving Technique:
Bipolar DC Analysis
1. Assume that the transistor is biased in
forward active mode
a. VBE = VBE(on), IB > 0, & IC = bIB
2. Analyze ‘linear’ circuit.
3. Evaluate the resulting state of transistor.
a. If VCE > VCE(sat), assumption is correct
b. If IB < 0, transistor likely in cutoff
c. If VCE < 0, transistor likely in saturation
4. If initial assumption is incorrect, make new
assumption and return to Step 2.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-46

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-47
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 Voltage Transfer Characteristic for
npn Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-48

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 Voltage Transfer Characteristic for
pnp Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-49

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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-50
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-51
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-52
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-53
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Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-54
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 Digital Logic

Inverter NOR gate

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-55

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 Bipolar Inverter as Amplifier

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-56

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 Effect of Improper Biasing on
Amplified Signal Waveform

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-57

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 Single Base Resistor Biasing

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-58

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 Common Emitter with Voltage
Divider Biasing and Emitter Resistor

VTH = [ R2 /( R1 + R2 )VCC

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-59

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Integrated
Circuit
Biasing

I1
IC = IQ =
2
1+
b

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-60

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Multistage Cascade Transistor Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-61

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Multistage Cascode
Transistor Circuit

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-62

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Simplified Cutoff Region Model
If we assume that
kT kT
vBE ≤ −4 and vBC ≤ −4
q q

where -4kT/q = -0.1 V, then the

transport model terminal current
equations simplify to

In the cutoff region, both junctions IS IS

are reverse-biased; the transistor is iC = and iE = −
βR βF
said to be in off state
IS IS
vBE < 0, vBC < 0 iB = − −
βF βF

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-63

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Simplified Cutoff Region Model
Example
q Problem: Estimate terminal currents using the transport model
q Given data: IS = 10-16 A, aF = 0.95, aR = 0.25, VBE = 0 V, VBC = -5 V
q Assumptions: Simplified transport model assumptions
q Analysis: From given voltages, we know that transistor is in cutoff.

! 1 $ IS
I C = I S #1+ & = = 4x10 −16 A
" βR % α R
I E = I S = 10 −16 A
IS
IB = − = −3x10 −16 A
βR
For practical purposes, all three
currents are essentially zero.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-64

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Simplified Forward-Active Region Model

In forward-active region, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the

collector-base junction is reverse-biased. vBE > 0, vBC < 0. if we assume
kT kT
vBE ≥ −4 and vBC ≤ −4
q q
then the transport model terminal current equations simplify to
"v % I
iC ≅ I S exp $ BE ' + S iC = α F I E
# VT & β R
" vBE % I S IS " vBE %
iE ≅ I S exp $ '+ = exp $ ' iC = β F I B
V
# T & F β α F V
# T &
IS " vBE % I S I S " vBE %
iB ≅ exp $ '+ ≅ exp $ ' iB = ( β F +1) I B
βF V
# T & R β β F V
# T &
BJT is often considered a current-controlled device, though fundamental
forward-active behavior suggests a voltage- controlled current source.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-65

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Simplified Forward-Active Region Model
Example 1
• Problem: Estimate transistor terminal currents and base-emitter voltage
• Given data: IS =10-16 A, aF = 0.95, VBC = VB - VC = -5 V, IE = 100 µA
• Assumptions: Simplified transport model assumptions, room
temperature operation, VT = 25.0 mV
• Analysis: Current source forward-biases base-emitter diode, VBE > 0,
VBC < 0, we know that transistor is in forward-active operation region.
I C = α F I E = 0.95 (100µ A) = 95 µ A
αF 0.95
βF = = = 19
1− α F 1− 0.95
I 100µ A
IB = E = = 5 µA
β F +1 20
" IE %
VBE = VT ln $α F ' = 0.689 V
# IS &

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-66

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Simplified Forward-Active Region Model
Example 2
• Problem: Estimate terminal currents, base-emitter and base-collector
voltages for the transistor in the given circuit.
• Given data: IS = 10-16 A, aF = 0.95, VC = +5 V, IB = 100 µA
• Assumptions: Simplified transport model assumptions, room temperature
operation, VT = 25.0 mV
• Analysis: Current source causes base current to forward-bias base-emitter diode,
VBE > 0, VBC <0, we know that transistor is in forward-active operation region.
α 0.95
βF = F = = 19
1− α F 1− 0.95
I C = β F I B = 19 (100µ A) = 1.90 mA
I E = ( β F +1) I B = 20 (100µ A) = 2.00 mA
" IC % " 1.9mA %
VBE = VT ln $1+ ' = 0.025V ln $1+ ' = 0.764 V
# I S & # 0.1 fA &
VBC = VB −VC = VBE −VC = 0.764 − 5 = −4.24 V

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-67

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 Simplified Circuit Model
Forward-Active Region

q Current in base-emitter diode is amplified by common-emitter

current gain bF and appears at collector; base and collector
currents are exponentially related to base-emitter voltage.
q Base-emitter diode is replaced by constant voltage drop model
(VBE = 0.7 V) since it is forward-biased in forward-active region.
q dc base and emitter voltages differ by 0.7-V diode voltage drop in
forward-active region.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-68

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Simplified Forward-Active Region Model
Example 3
• Problem: Find transistor Q-point
• Given data: bF = 50, bR = 1
• Assumptions: Forward-active region
of operation, VBE = 0.7 V VBE + 8200I E −VEE = 0
• Analysis: 9 − 0.7 V
∴ IE = = 1.01 mA
8200 Ω
I 1.01mA
IB = E = = 19.8 µ A
β F +1 51
I C = β F I B = 50 (19.8µ A) = 0.990 mA
VCE = VCC − I C RC − (−VBE )
VCE = 9 − 0.99mA ( 4.3K ) + 0.7 = 5.44 V
Forward-active region is correct.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-69

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Simplified Circuit Model
Reverse-Active Region
In reverse-active region, base-
collector diode is forward-biased
and base-emitter diode is reverse-
biased.
Simplified equations are:

# vBC &
iE ≅ −I S exp % (
$ VT '
IS # vBC & iE = α RiC
iC ≅ − exp % (
αR V
$ T ' iE = −β RiB
IS # vBC &
iB ≅ exp % (
BR V
$ T '

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-70

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Simplified Reverse-Active Region Model
Example
• Problem: Find transistor Q-point
• Given data: bF = 50, bR = 1 VBE = VB - VE = -9 V. Combination of R
and the voltage source forward biases base-collector junction.
• Assumptions: Reverse-active region of operation, VBC = 0.7 V
• Analysis:
−0.7V − (−9V )
−I C = = 1.01 mA
8200Ω
−I C 1.01mA
IB = = = 0.505 mA
β R +1 2
−I E = β R I B = 0.505 mA

Current directions are consistent

with reverse-active region operation.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-71

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Simplified Circuit Model
Saturation Region
q In the saturation region, both junctions are forward-biased,
and the transistor operates with a small voltage between
collector and emitter. vCESAT is the saturation voltage for the
npn BJT.
!V $ I !V $ I !V $ I !V $
I C = I S exp # BE & − S exp # BC & I B = S exp # BE & + S exp # BC &
" VT % α R " VT % βF " VT % β R " VT %
( IC +
*! $ 1+ -
VCESAT = VBE −VBC = VT ln *# &
1 ( β R +1 ) I B - for I B ≥ I C
*" α R % 1− I C - βF Simplified Model
*) β F I B -,

No simplified expressions exist for

terminal currents other than iC + iB = iE.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-72

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Non Ideal BJT Behavior
Junction Breakdown Voltages
q If reverse voltage across either of the two pn junctions
in the transistor is too large, the corresponding diode
will break down.
q The emitter is the most heavily-doped region, and the
collector is the most lightly doped region.
q Due to doping differences, the base-emitter diode has a
relatively low breakdown voltage (3 to 10 V). The
collector-base diode can be designed to break down at
much larger voltages.
q Transistors must be selected in accordance with possible
reverse voltages in circuit.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-73

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 Non Ideal BJT Behavior
Minority Carrier Transport in the Base Region
q BJT current dominated by diffusion nbo is equilibrium electron density
of minority carriers (electrons in npn in the p-type base region.
and holes in pnp transistors) across
base region.
q Base current consists of hole
injection back into emitter and
collector and a small additional
current to replenish holes lost to
recombination with electrons in
base.
q Minority carrier concentrations at the
two ends of the base region are:

! vBE $ ! vBC $
n ( 0 ) = nbo exp # & and n (WB ) = nbo exp # &
V
" T % V
" T %

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-74

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Minority Carrier Transport in the Base
Region
(cont.)
q For narrow base devices, minority carrier density decreases
linearly across the base, and the diffusion current in the base is:
nbo qADn ni2
I S = qADn =
WB WB N AB
NAB = doping concentration in base
ni2 = intrinsic carrier concentration (1010/cm3)
nbo = ni2 / NAB

q Saturation current for the pnp transistor is pbo qADp ni2

I S = qADp =
WB WB N DB
q Due to higher mobility of electrons than holes, the npn
transistor conducts higher current than the pnp for a given set
of applied voltages.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-75

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Non Ideal BJT Behavior
Base Transit Time
q Forward transit time tF is the time
constant associated with storing
minority-carrier charge Q required to
establish career gradient in base region.
( ! vBE $ + WB
Q = qAnbo *exp # & −1-
) " VT % , 2
qADn ( ! vBE $ +
iT = nbo *exp # & −1-
WB ) " VT % ,
Q WB2 WB2
τF = = =
iT 2Dn 2µ nVT
Transit time places upper limit on useful
operating frequency of transistor.

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-76

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Non Ideal BJT Behavior
Diffusion Capacitance
q For vBE and hence iC to change, charge stored in base region
must also change.
q Diffusion capacitance in parallel with forward-biased base-
emitter diode models the change in charge with vBE.

dQ 1 qAnboWB " VBE % IT

CD = = exp $ '= τF
dvBE Q−pt
VT 2 # VT & VT
q Since transport current normally represents collector current
in forward-active region,

IC
CD = τF
VT

Neamen Microelectronics, 4e Chapter 5-77

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b Cutoff-Frequency, Transconductance and
Transit Time

q Forward-biased diffusion and reverse-biased pn junction capacitances of

the BJT cause current gain to be frequency-dependent.
q Unity gain frequency fT is frequency at which the current gain is unity
βF fT
β(f)= where fB = is the β cutoff-frequency
! f $
2 βF
1+ # &
" fB %
q Transconductance is defined by:

di d ( " vBE %+ IC
gm = C = * I S exp $ '- =
dvBE Q−Pt
dvBE ) V
# T &, VT
Q−Pt
q Transit time is given by:
CD IC
τF = with gm =
gm VT

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 Early Effect and Early Voltage
q As reverse-bias across the collector-base junction increases, width
of the collector-base depletion layer increases and width of the
base decreases (termed “base-width modulation”).
q In a practical BJT, the output characteristics have a positive slope in
forward-active region; collector current is not independent of vCE.
q Early effect: When the output characteristics are extrapolated back
to point of zero iC, the curves intersect (approximately) at a
common point vCE = -VA which lies between 15 V and 150 V. (VA is
named the Early voltage)
q Simplified equations (including Early effect):

! vBE $' vCE * ' vCE * IS ! vBE $

iC = I S exp # &)1+ , β F = β FO )1+ , iB = exp # &
" VT %( VA + ( VA + β FO " VT %

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High Performance BJTs

q Modern BJTs use a combination of shallow and deep trench isolation

processes to reduce device capacitances and transit times.
q Devices have polysilicon emitters, narrow bases, and/or SiGe base
regions.
q SiGe transistors exhibit cutoff frequencies > 100 GHz.

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Biasing for the BJT
Overview
q The goal of biasing is to establish known Q-point which in
turn establishes initial operating region of the transistor.
q For a BJT, the Q-point is represented by (IC, VCE) for an
npn transistor or (IC, VEC) for a pnp transistor.
q The Q-point controls values of diffusion capacitance,
transconductance, input and output resistances.
q In general, during circuit analysis, we use simplified
mathematical relationships derived for a specified
operation region, and the Early voltage is assumed to be
infinite.
q Two practical biasing circuits used for a BJT are:
Ø Four-Resistor Bias Network
Ø Two-Resistor Bias Network

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BJT Biasing
Four-Resistor Bias Network
Thevenin Equivalent of
VEQ = I B REQ +VBE + I E RE
Base Bias Network
R1 VEQ −VBE
VEQ = VCC =4 V IB =
R1 + R2 REQ + ( β F +1) RE
R1R2 4V − 0.7V
RTH = = 12 kΩ IB = = 2.69 µ A
R1 + R2 12kΩ + ( 76 )16kΩ

β F = 75 I C = β F I B = 202 µ A
I E = ( β F +1) I B = 204 µ A
VCE = VCC − I C RC − I E RE = 4.29 V

Forward active region is correct

Q-point is (202 µA, 4.29 V)

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BJT Biasing
Four-Resistor Bias Network (cont.)
q All calculated currents > 0, VBC = VBE - VCE = 0.7 - 4.32 = - 3.62 V
q Hence, base-collector junction is reverse-biased, and assumption of
forward-active region operation is correct.
q Load-line for the circuit is:
" RE %
VCE = VCC − $ RC + ' I C = 12 − 38200I C
# αF &
The two points needed to plot the load
line are (0, 12 V) and (314 µA, 0). The
resulting load line is plotted on the
common-emitter output characteristics.
IB = 2.7 µA - the intersection of the
corresponding characteristic with load
line gives the Q-point: (200 µA, 4.3 V)

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BJT Biasing
Four-Resistor Bias Design Objectives
q We know that

VEQ −VBE − I B REQ VEQ −VBE

IC ≅ I E = ≅ for I B REQ << (VEQ −VBE )
RE RE
q We desire IB << IR2 that IR1 = IR2. In this case, base current
doesn’t disturb the voltage divider action of R1 and R2. Thus,
the Q-point is independent of base current as well as current
gain!
q Also, VEQ is designed to be large enough that small variations
in the assumed value of VBE won’t affect IE and IC.
q Current in the base voltage divider network is set by choosing
I2 ≤ IC/5.
This ensures that power dissipation in bias resistors is < 17 %
of the total quiescent power consumed by circuit, and I2 >> IB
for b > 50.
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BJT Biasing
Four-Resistor Bias Design Guidelines
q Choose Thévenin equivalent base voltage VCC V
≤ VEQ ≤ CC
4 2
q Select R1 to set I1 = 9IB. VEQ
R1 =
9I B
q Select R2 to set I2 = 10IB.
VCC −VEQ
R2 =
10I B
q RE is determined by VEQ and the desired IC. VEQ −VBE
RE ≅
IC

q RC is determined by desired VCE.

VEQ −VBE
RC ≅ − RE
IC

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Four-Resistor Bias for BJT
Design Example
• Problem: Design 4-resistor bias circuit with given parameters.
• Given data: IC = 750 µA, bF = 100, VCC = 15 V, VCE = 5 V
• Assumptions: Forward-active operation region, VBE = 0.7 V
• Analysis: Divide (VCC - VCE) equally between RE and RC. Thus, VE = 5 V
and VC = 10 V; Choose nearest 5% resistor values.
VCC −VC
RC = = 6.67 kΩ → 6.8 kΩ I 2 = 10I B = 75.0 µ A
IC
VE I 2 = 9I B = 67.5 µ A
RE = = 6.60 kΩ → 6.8 kΩ
IE
VB
VB = VE +VBE = 5.7 V R1 = = 84.4 kΩ → 82 kΩ
9I B
I V −V
I B = C = 7.5 µ A R2 = CC B = 124 kΩ →120 kΩ
βF 10I B

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BJT Biasing
Two-Resistor Bias Example
• Problem: Find the Q-point a for pnp transistor in a 2-resistor bias circuit
with given parameters.
• Given data: bF = 50, VCC = 9 V
• Assumptions: Forward-active operation region, VEB = 0.7 V
• Analysis:
9 = VEB +18000I B +1000 ( I C + I B )
9 = VEB +18000I B +1000 ( 51I B )

9 − 0.7 V
IB = = 120 µ A I C = 50I B = 6.01 mA
69000 Ω
VEC = 9 −1000 ( I C + I B ) = 2.88 V VEC > VBE

Forward-active region operation is

correct Q-point is : (6.01 mA, 2.88 V)

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Tolerances & Worst-Case Analysis
Example
q Problem: Find worst-case values of IC and VCE in the circuit below.
q Given data: bFO = 75 with 50% tolerance, VA = 50 V, 5 % tolerance
on VCC , 10% tolerance for each resistor. R1 = 18 kW, R2 = 36 kW.
q Simplified Analysis: V −V EQ BE
IC ≅ I E ≅
RE
To maximize IC , VEQ should be maximized, RE
should be minimized and the opposite for
minimizing IC. Extremes of RE are: 14.4 kW and
17.6 kW.
R1 VCC
VEQ = VCC =
R1 + R2 1+ ( R2 R1 )
To maximize VEQ, VCC and R1 should be
maximized, R2 should be minimized and
opposite for minimizing VEQ.

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Tolerances & Worst-Case Analysis
Example (cont.)
VCC = 12V ± 5%
R1 = 18kΩ ±10%
R2 = 36kΩ ±10%
R1 VCC
VEQ = VCC =
R1 + R2 1+ ( R2 R1 )
R1R2
REQ = = R1 R2
R1 + R2

max 12V (1.05) min 12V (0.95)

VEQ = = 4.78 V VEQ = = 3.31 V
" $
1+ #36kΩ(0.9) 18kΩ (1.1))% " $
1+ #36kΩ(1.1) 18kΩ ( 0.9))%
4.78V − 0.7V 3.31V − 0.7V
I Cmax ≅ = 283 µ A I Cmin ≅ = 148 µ A
16kΩ ( 0.90 ) 16kΩ (1.1)

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Tolerances & Worst-Case Analysis
Example (cont.)
Extremes of VEQ are: 4.78 V and 3.31 V.
Extremes for IC are: 283 µA and 148 µA.
VEQ −VBE
VCE = VCC − I C RC − I E RE ≅ VCC − I C RC − RE
RE
VCE ≅ VCC − I C RC −VEQ +VBE
max
VCE = 12V (1.05) − 0.148mA ( 22kΩ) (.9 ) − 3.31+ 0.7 = 6.73 V
min
VCE = 12V ( 0.95) − 0.283mA ( 22kΩ) (1.1) − 4.78 + 0.7 = 0.471 V ×

To maximize VCE , IC and RC should be minimized, and opposite for minimizing VEQ.
Extremes of VCE are: 7.06 V (forward-active region) and
0.471 V (saturated, hence calculated values for
VCE and IC actually not correct).

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