EMG 2423: EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS SAMPLE QUESTIONS AND

ANSWERS
Question One
(a) State four properties of a good gauge for strain measurements.

Properties of a good gage

• High gage factor
• High R
• Low temperature sensitivity
• High electrical stability
• High yield point stability
• High endurance limit
• Good workability
• Good solderability
• Low hysteresis
• Good corrosion resistance
(b) Show that the strain sensitivity factor, F, of a conductor of length L, resistance R, cross
sectional area A, resistivity 𝜌 being pulled by a tensile force is given by:
𝑑𝜌/𝜌
𝐹= + (1 + 2𝑣)
𝜀
Where 𝑣 is the poisson’s ratio.

y
P P
x
L0 ΔL
L1

First, the resistance R of a uniform conductor with a length L, cross sectional area A and specific
resistance, 𝜌 is given by;
𝐿
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴 (1)

Differentiating equation (1) and dividing by the total resistance R, we get;

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐴
= + − (2)
𝑅 𝜌 𝐿 𝐴

The term 𝑑𝐴 represents the change in cross sectional area of the conductor due to transverse
𝑑𝐿
strain, which is equal to – 𝜈 .
𝐿
 If the diameter of the conductor before application of axial strain is noted as 𝑑0 𝑡hen the diameter
after the strain is applied is given by;
𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑0 (1 − 𝜈 ) (3)
𝐿

From equation (3), it is clear that;

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐿 2
𝑑𝐿 2
= −2𝜈 +𝜈 ( )
𝐴 𝐿 𝐿
Ignoring high order terms we get
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐿
≃ 2𝜈 (4)
𝐴 𝐿

Substituting equation (4) in (2) we get;

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿
= + (1 + 2𝜈)
𝑅 𝜌 𝐿
Which can be written as;
𝑑𝑅/𝑅 𝑑𝜌/𝜌
𝑆𝐴 = = (1 + 2𝜈) + (5)
𝜀 𝜀

(c) An electrical strain gauge conductor is connected to a specimen before the specimen is
subjected to a tensile stress. Initially, the conductor has a diameter of 45.70 mm, a length
of 0.17m and a resistivity of 1.66 x 10-1Ω⋅m. After the specimen is subjected to the tensile
stress of 56MPa, the diameter changes to 35.24 mm. Find the Gauge Factor and Poisson’s
ratio of the specimen if the material has a Young’s Modulus of 90MPa.

2
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋×(45.7×10−3 )
Original area of the conductor, 𝐴0 = = = 0.00164 𝑚2
4 4

2
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋×(35.24×10−3)
New (final) are of the conductor 𝐴𝑓 = = = 0.000975 𝑚2
4 4
𝐿 1.45×10−1×0.17
Original resistance 𝑅𝑜 = 𝜌 𝐴 = = 15.03𝛺
0.00164
𝐿 1.45×10−1 ×0.17
New resistance 𝑅𝑛 = 𝜌 𝐴 = = 25.28𝛺
0.000975
∆𝑅 = 𝑅𝑛 − 𝑅𝑜 = 25.28𝛺 − 15.03𝛺 = 10.25𝛺

∆𝑅 10.25
= = 0.682
𝑅 15.03
𝑑𝑅/𝑅
𝑆𝐴 =
𝜀
𝜎 56 × 106
𝜀= = = 0.622
𝐸 90 × 106

0.682
𝑆𝐴 = = 1.0965
0.622
(d) The transverse sensitivity error (T.S) can be defined as;

𝜀𝑎 − 𝜀𝑙
𝑒=
𝜀𝑙
Where 𝜀𝑐 is the strain as read by the indicator and 𝜀𝑙 is the true strain along the axis of the
gauge. Derive an expression for e as;
𝜀𝑡
𝑒 =𝐴+𝐵
𝜀𝑙
Where A and B are functions of 𝑣𝑜 and K. 𝜀𝑡 is the true strain transverse to the axis of the
gauge. 𝑣𝑜 and K are poisson’s ratio of the bar on which the gauge was calibrated and
transverse strain sensitivity of the gauge respectively. Assume no error other than T.S is
affecting the gauge readings. Find A and B and evaluate the same for 𝑣𝑜 = 0.285 and 𝐾 =
−2%.

No proof of any formulae you may use is required.

Generally, a strain gage factor has two gage factors 𝑆𝑎 and 𝑆𝑡 which basically refer to the gage
factor as determined in a uniaxial strain field for the gage axis parallel to and perpendicular to the
strain field respectively.

For any strain field, the output of the strain can be expressed as;
𝛥𝑅
= 𝑆𝑎 𝜀𝑎 + 𝑆𝑡 𝜀𝑡 (1)
𝑅

Where 𝜀𝑎 and 𝜀𝑡 are the strains parallel to and perpendicular to the gage axis. 𝑆𝑎 and 𝑆𝑡 are the
axial and transverse gage factors.

From (1)
𝛥𝑅
= 𝑆𝑎 (𝜀𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑡 ) (2)
𝑅
𝑆
𝑘𝑡 = 𝑆 𝑡 - Transverse sensitivity (coefficient of the gage)
𝑎

When the gage is calibrated for a gage factor in uniaxial stress field on a material with a Poisson’s
ratio of 𝜈0 , then;

𝜀𝑡 = −𝜈0 𝜀𝑎
Hence
𝛥𝑅
= 𝑆𝑎 𝜀𝑎 (1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 ) (3)
𝑅

Gage manufacturers write the equation as;

𝛥𝑅
= 𝑆𝑔 𝜀𝑎 (4)
𝑅
 Where 𝑆𝑔 is the manufacturer’s gage factor which is simple in appearance but in reality, the gage
factor is related to both 𝑆𝑎 and 𝑘𝑡 .by the expression;

𝑆𝑔 = 𝑆𝑎 (1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 ) (5)

Definition: Apparent strain: is obtained in any strain field by use of gage factor supplied by the
manufacturer.
𝛥𝑅/𝑅 𝑆𝑎 (𝜀𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑡 )
𝜀𝑎′ = =
𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑎 (1− 𝜈0𝑘𝑡 )

(𝜀𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑡)
𝜀𝑎′ = (1− 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 )
(6)

The error due to transverse sensitivity for a strain gage oriented at any angle in any strain field is
given as;
𝜀𝑎′ − 𝜀𝑎
𝜂=
𝜀𝑎

Where 𝜂 is the error as a percentage of the axial strain along the gage length
(𝜀𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡𝜀𝑡 )
But 𝜀𝑎′ = (1− 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 )
- from (6). Therefore,

(𝜀𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑡 )
− 𝜀𝑎
(1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 )
𝜂=
𝜀𝑎
𝜀
𝑘𝑡 𝜀 𝑡 + 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡
𝑎
𝜂=
1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡
𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑡 𝑘𝑡 𝜈0
𝜂= ∗ +
1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡 𝜀𝑎 1 − 𝜈0 𝑘𝑡
𝜀
𝜂 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝜀𝑡 (7)
𝑎

𝜈 𝑘 𝑘
Where 𝐴 = 1−0𝜈 𝑡𝑘 and 𝐵 = 1− 𝜈𝑡
0 𝑡 0 𝑘𝑡

0.285 × −0.002
𝐴= = −5.7 × 10−4
1 − (0.285 × −0.002)

−0.002
𝐵= = −2 × 10−3
1 − (0.285 × −0.002)
(e) A 3-element rectangular rosette has the elements arranged as shown in the figure. Show
that principal strains and direction are given by the following expressions.

1,2 =
( A +  C )  1 ( −  )2 + (2 −  −  )2
A C B A C
2 2
and
 2 B −  A −  C
tan(2 ) =
 A − C

45 45
A C
B

Consider 3 strain gages aligned along axis A, B and C as shown in the figure above.

45 45
A C
B

Fig. Three gage elements placed at arbitrary angles relative to the X- and Y- axis

𝜀𝐴 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐴

𝜀𝐵 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐵 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐵 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐵

𝜀𝐶 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐶 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐶 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐶

(1)

The Cartesian component of strain 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 can be found from solving equation (1) simultaneously.

The three-element rectangular rosette employs gages placed at 0˚ , 45˚ and 90˚ positions as shown in the
figure.
1 1
Noting that sin 2𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 2 (1 + cos 2𝜃) and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 2 (1 − cos 2𝜃), then equation (1)
may be written as;
1 1 1
𝜀𝐴 = (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝐴 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝐴
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝜀𝐵 = (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝐵 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝐵
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝜀𝐶 = (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝐶 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝐶
2 2 2
(2)

For 0˚ :
1 1
𝜀𝐴 = 2 (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀 − 𝜀𝑦 ) = 𝜀𝑥 (3)
2 𝑥
For 45˚ :
1 1 1 1 1
𝜀𝐵 = 2 (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 90˚ + 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = (𝜀 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + 𝛾 (4)
2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥𝑦

For 90˚ :
𝜀𝐶 = 𝜀𝑦 (5)

Substituting for 𝜀𝑥 and 𝜀𝑦 in equation (2) we get

1 1
𝜀𝐵 = (𝜀𝐴 + 𝜀𝐶 ) + 𝛾
2 2 𝑥𝑦

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2 𝜀𝐵 − 𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶 (6)

Thus, by measuring the strains 𝜀𝐴 , 𝜀𝐵 and 𝜀𝐶 , the Cartesian component of strain 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 can
quickly and simply be established.

The principal strain and principal strain directions can be established using the following equations.

1 1 2
𝜀1,2 = 2 (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) ±2 √(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 (7)

𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜀 (8)
𝑥 −𝜀𝑦

Next, by utilizing equations (7) and (8), the principal strains and principal strain directions can be
established as;
1 1
𝜀1,2 = 2 (𝜀𝐴 + 𝜀𝐶 ) ±2 √(𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶 )2 + (2 𝜀𝐵 − 𝜀𝐴 − 𝜀𝐶 )2 (9)

2 𝜀𝐵 −𝜀𝐴 −𝜀𝐶
tan 2𝜃 = ( ) (10)
𝜀𝐴−𝜀𝐶

Question Two
Three strain gauges are applied at a point on a steel structure in such a manner that gauge ‘B’
makes a positive angle of 350 with gauge ‘A’ and gauge ‘C’ makes a positive angle of 520 with
gauge ‘B’. Gauge ‘A’ lies along the x- axis. The strain gauge readings obtained from the gauge
are as follows:
𝜀𝐴 = −720𝜇𝑚/𝑚
𝜀𝐵 = 360𝜇𝑚/𝑚
𝜀𝐶 = 459𝜇𝑚/𝑚
Calculate the
(i) principal stresses considering the effect of transverse sensitivity and the errors in the
principal stresses.
 (ii) principal stresses without considering the effect of transverse sensitivity and
(iii) the errors in the principal stresses
Take
𝑣0 = Poisson’s ratio of the material of the calibration bar = 0.285
𝑣 = Poisson’s ratio of the material of the steel structure = 0.32
𝐾 = Transverse sensitivity factor of the gauges = 2.8%
𝐸 = Young’s modulus of the material of the structure = 210 GPa.
Note: No proof of any formulae used is required.
(i) From the problem, 𝜃𝐴 = 0°, 𝜃𝐵 = 35°, 𝜃𝐶 = 35° + 52° = 87°
Calculating principal stresses considering effect of transverse sensitivity
1 (1 − 𝐾)
𝜀𝜃 = [𝜀𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 𝜀𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃]
1 − 𝜈𝑜 𝐾 2
Considering 𝜃𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 1; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 = 0 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = 0
1
𝜀𝐴 = −720 = [𝜀 (1 + 0.028 × 0) + 𝜀𝑦 (0 + 0.028 × 1)
1 − 0.285 × 0.028 𝑥
(1 − 0.028)
+ × 0 × 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐴 = −720 = 1.00804[𝜀𝑥 + 0.028𝜀𝑦 ]
𝜀𝐴 = −720 = 1.00804𝜀𝑥 + 0.02822𝜀𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐵 = 35°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐵 = 0.671; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐵 = 0.329 and sin 2𝜃𝐵 = 0.94

𝜀𝐵 = 360 = 1.00804 [𝜀𝑥 (0.671 + 0.028 × 0.329) + 𝜀𝑦 (0.329 + 0.028 × 0.671)

(1 − 0.028)
+ × 0.94𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐵 = 360 = 1.00804[0.68𝜀𝑥 + 0.348𝜀𝑦 + 0.4568𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
𝜀𝐵 = 360 = 0.6855𝜀𝑥 + 0.351𝜀𝑦 + 0.4605𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐶 = 87°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.00274; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.997 and sin 2𝜃𝐶 = 0.1045

𝜀𝐶 = 459 = 1.00804 [𝜀𝑥 (0.00274 + 0.028 × 0.997)

(1 − 0.028)
+ 𝜀𝑦 (0.997 + 0.028 × 0.00274) + × 0.1045𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐶 = 459 = 1.00804[0.03066𝜀𝑥 + 0.997𝜀𝑦 + 0.05079𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
 𝜀𝐶 = 459 = 0.03091𝜀𝑥 + 1.00502𝜀𝑦 + 0.0512𝛾𝑥𝑦
Solving the equations simultaneously;
𝜀𝑥 = −725.4469𝜇; 𝜀𝑦 = 399.699𝜇 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 1557.003𝜇
Calculating the principal strains;
1 1 2
𝜀1,2 = 2 (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) ±2 √(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2

1 1 2
𝜀1,2 = 2 (−725.446 + 399.699) ±2 √(−725.446 − 399.699)2 + 1557.003

𝜀1 = −162.8735 + 960.4959 = 797.62𝜇

𝜀2 = −162.8735 − 960.4959 = −1123.3694𝜇
Now the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 with K are given as
𝐸
𝜎1,2 = (𝜀 + 𝜈𝜀2,1 )
1 − 𝜈 2 1,2
210 × 109
𝜎1 = (797.62 + 0.32 × −1123.3694) × 10−6
1 − 0.322

𝜎1 = 102.5 MPa

210 × 109
𝜎2 = 2
(−1123.3694 + 0.32 × 797.62) × 10−6
1 − 0.32
𝜎2 = −203.12 MPa

(ii) Calculating principal stresses neglecting effect of K (K=0)

1
𝜀𝜃 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
Considering 𝜃𝐴 = 0°

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 1; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 = 0and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = 0

𝜀𝐴 = 720 = 𝜀𝑥

Considering 𝜃𝐵 = 35°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.671; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.329 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = 0.94
𝜀𝐵 = 360 = 0.671𝜀𝑥 + 0.329𝜀𝑦 + 0.94𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐶 = 87°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.00274; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.997 and sin 2𝜃𝐶 = 0.1045

𝜀𝐶 = 459 = 0.00274𝜀𝑥 + 0.997𝜀𝑦 + 0.1045𝛾𝑥𝑦

Solving simultaneously;
𝜀𝑥 = −720𝜇; 𝜀𝑦 = 382.2296𝜇 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 1527.2474𝜇
 Calculating the principal strains;
1 1 2
𝜀1,2 = 2 (−720 + 382.2296) ±2 √(−720 + 382.2296)2 + 1527.2474
𝜀1 = −168.8852 + 941.7264 = 772.841𝜇
𝜀2 = −168.8852 − 941.7264 = −1110.61𝜇
Now the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 with K are given as
𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎1 = (𝜀 + 𝜈𝜀 ) = (772.841 + 0.32 × −1110.61) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 1 2
1 − 0.322
𝜎1 = 97.66 MPa

𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎2 = (𝜀 − 𝜈𝜀 ) = (−1110.61 + 0.32 × 772.841) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 2 1
1 − 0.322
𝜎2 = −201.975 MPa
(iii) Calculating percentage error in the elimination of transverse sensitivity (K)
For 𝜎1
σ1 (with K)−σ1 (without K)
Error = × 100%
σ1 (with K)

102.5−97.66
Error = × 100% = 4.72%
102.5

For 𝜎2
σ2 (with K)−σ2 (without K)
Error = × 100%
σ2 (with K)

−203.12−(−201.975)
Error = × 100% = 0.56%
−203.12

Question Two b
The apparent strains measured by a strain gage rosette mounted on a high pressure vessel
constructed from steel as shown in Fig. are εA=800μ, εB=-100μ and εC=-900μ. Taking Poisson’s
ratio of the material as 0.3 and Young’s modulus E, as 210 Gpa, Calculate the principal stresses
(i) with effects of transverse sensitivity considered (ii) without considering the effects of
transverse sensitivity and (iii) the errors in principal stresses.
(iv) From figure, 𝜃𝐴 = 30°, 𝜃𝐵 = (30° + 60° + 15°) = 105°, 𝜃𝐶 = −30° or 330°
Calculating principal stresses considering effect of transverse sensitivity
1 (1 − 𝐾)
𝜀𝜃 = [𝜀𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 𝜀𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃]
1 − 𝜈𝑜 𝐾 2
Considering 𝜃𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.75; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.25 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = 0.866
1
𝜀𝐴 = 800 = [𝜀 (0.75 + 0.02 × 0.25) + 𝜀𝑦 (0.25 + 0.02 × 0.75)
1 − 0.285 × 0.02 𝑥
(1 − 0.02)
+ × 0.866𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐴 = 800 = 1.0057[0.755𝜀𝑥 + 0.265𝜀𝑦 + 0.424𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
𝜀𝐴 = 800 = 0.7593𝜀𝑥 + 0.2665𝜀𝑦 + 0.4267𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐵 = 105°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.067; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.933 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = −0.5

𝜀𝐵 = −100 = 1.0057 [𝜀𝑥 (0.067 + 0.02 × 0.933) + 𝜀𝑦 (0.933 + 0.02 × 0.067)

(1 − 0.02)
+ × −0.5𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐵 = −100 = 1.0057[0.0857𝜀𝑥 + 0.9343 − 0.245𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
𝜀𝐵 = −100 = 0.0862𝜀𝑥 + 0.9397 − 0.2464𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐶 = 330°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.75; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.25 and sin 2𝜃𝐶 = −0.866
 𝜀𝐶 = −900 = 1.0057 [𝜀𝑥 (0.75 + 0.02 × 0.25) + 𝜀𝑦 (0.25 + 0.02 × 0.75)
(1 − 0.02)
+ × −0.866𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
2
𝜀𝐶 = −900 = 1.0057[0.755𝜀𝑥 + 0.265𝜀𝑦 − 0.424𝛾𝑥𝑦 ]
𝜀𝐶 = −900 = 0.7593𝜀𝑥 + 0.2665𝜀𝑦 − 0.4267𝛾𝑥𝑦
Solving the equations simultaneously;
𝜀𝑥 = −218.88𝜇; 𝜀𝑦 = 435.99𝜇 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 1992.03𝜇
Calculating the principal strains;
1 1
𝜀1,2 = 2 (−218.88 + 435.99) ±2 √(−218.88 − 435.99)2 + 1992.032

𝜀1 = 108.56 + 1048.46 = 1157𝜇

𝜀2 = 108.56 − 1048.46 = −939.9𝜇
Now the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 with K are given as
𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎1 = (𝜀 + 𝜈𝜀 ) = (1157 + 0.3 × −939.9) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 1 2
1 − 0.32
𝜎1 = 201.93 MPa

𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎2 = (𝜀 + 𝜈𝜀 ) = (−939.9 + 0.3 × 1157) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 2 1
1 − 0.32
𝜎2 = −136.8 MPa

(v) Calculating principal stresses neglecting effect of K (K=0)

1
𝜀𝜃 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
Considering 𝜃𝐴 = 30°

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.75; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.25 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = 0.866

𝜀𝐴 = 800 = 0.75𝜀𝑥 + 0.25𝜀𝑦 + 0.433𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐵 = 105°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.067; 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝐴 = 0.933 and sin 2𝜃𝐴 = −0.5
𝜀𝐵 = −100 = 0.067𝜀𝑥 + 0.933𝜀𝑦 − 0.25𝛾𝑥𝑦

Considering 𝜃𝐶 = 330°
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.75; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃𝐶 = 0.25 and sin 2𝜃𝐶 = −0.866
𝜀𝐶 = −900 = 0.75𝜀𝑥 + 0.25𝜀𝑦 − 0.433𝛾𝑥𝑦

Solving simultaneously;
𝜀𝑥 = −211.33𝜇; 𝜀𝑦 = 433.99𝜇 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 1963.05𝜇
 Calculating the principal strains;
1 1
𝜀1,2 = 2 (−211.33 + 433.99) ±2 √(−211.33 − 433.99)2 + 1963.052

𝜀1 = 111.33 + 1033.199 = 1144.53𝜇

𝜀2 = 111.33 − 1033.199 = −921.869𝜇
Now the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 with K are given as
𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎1 = (𝜀 − 𝜈𝜀 ) = (1144.53 − 0.3 × −921.869) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 1 2
1 − 0.32
𝜎1 = 200.3 MPa

𝐸 210 × 109
𝜎2 = (𝜀 − 𝜈𝜀 ) = (−921.869 + 0.3 × 1144.53) × 10−6
1 − 𝜈2 2 1
1 − 0.32
𝜎2 = −133.5 MPa
(vi) Calculating percentage error in the elimination of transverse sensitivity (K)
For 𝜎1
σ1 (with K)−σ1 (without K)
Error = × 100%
σ1 (with K)

201.93−200.3
Error = × 100% = 0.81%
201.93

For 𝜎1
σ2 (with K)−σ2 (without K)
Error = × 100%
σ2 (with K)

−136.8−(−133.5)
Error = × 100% = 2.41%
−136.8

Question 3
(a) Define the term Wheatstone bridge and state one major advantage of the Wheatstone
bridge over the potentiometer method of strain measurements.
An electrical circuit that is set up to measure the unknown value of a resistor and creates a
balance between the two legs of the bridge circuit is called a Wheatstone Bridge.

It has resistors, three of known and one of unknown value. Here R1, R2, and R3 have known
values among which R2 is adjustable and finally Rx is the value to be measured.
(b) Considering Wheatstone bridge below, derive the equation below, which is the basic
equation governing the behavior of the Wheatstone bridge in strain measurement.

𝑟 ∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4

𝐸=𝑉 ( − + − )
(1 + 𝑟)2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑅
where 𝑟 = 𝑅2, ∆𝐸 is the output voltage measured and related to strain. R1, R2, R3 and R4
1
are resistances.

Consider the Wheatstone bridge circuit shown in Figure.

The voltage drop across R1 is denoted as VAB and is given as;

𝑅1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑉 (a)
1 2

Similarly, the voltage drop across R4 is denoted as R4 and is given by;

𝑅4
𝑉𝐴𝐷 = 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑉 (b)
3 4

The output voltage from the bridge E is equivalent to VBD, which is,
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵𝐷 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴𝐷 (c)
Substituting equations (a) and (b) into (c) and simplifying we get;
𝑅1 𝑅3 −𝑅2 𝑅4
𝐸 = (𝑅 +𝑅 )(𝑅 +𝑅 )
𝑉 (d)
1 2 3 4
 The voltage E will go to zero and the bridge will be considered in balance when;
𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅4 (e)
It is this feature of balancing which permits the Wheatstone bridge to be employed for
static strain measurements. The bridge is initially balanced before strains are applied to to
the gages in the bridge; thus E is initially zero, and the strain induced voltage ΔE can be
measured directly for both static and dynamic applications.

Consider an initially balanced bridge with 𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅4 so that 𝐸 = 0 and then change

the value of resistance 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 by an incremental amount 𝛥𝑅1 , 𝛥𝑅2 , 𝛥𝑅3 and
𝛥𝑅4. The voltage output ΔE of the bridge can be obtained from equation (d), which
becomes;
𝑅1 +𝛥𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝛥𝑅2
| | 𝐴
𝑅 +𝛥𝑅 𝑅3 +𝛥𝑅3
𝛥𝐸 = 𝑉 𝑅1 +𝛥𝑅1 +𝑅42 +𝛥𝑅42 0 =𝑉 (f)
| 𝐵
0 𝑅3 +𝛥𝑅3 +𝑅4 +𝛥𝑅4 |

Where A is the determinant in the numerator and B is the determinant in the denominator.

By expanding each of these determinants, neglecting second order terms, and noting that
𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅4, it is possible to show that;

∆𝑅 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4

𝐴 = 𝑅1 𝑅3 ( 𝑅 1 − + − ) (g)
1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

𝑅1 𝑅3 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )2
𝐵= (h)
𝑅1 𝑅2
Combining equations (f) to (h) yields
𝑅 1 𝑅2 ∆𝑅 ∆𝑅 ∆𝑅 ∆𝑅
∆𝐸 = 𝑉 (𝑅 +𝑅 ( 1 − 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 3 − 𝑅 4)
)2 𝑅
*
1 2 1 2 3 4

By letting 𝑅2⁄𝑅1 = 𝑟, it is possible to re-write equation * as;

𝑟 ∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4
∆𝐸 = 𝑉 ( − + − )
(1 + 𝑟)2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

(c) Consider the bridge circuit below

The galvanometer resistance is 79Ω. The strain gauge resistance 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 128Ω and
𝑅1 = 103Ω at zero strain and resistor 𝑅4 is adjusted to balance the bridge at zero-strain
 conditions. The gauge factor is 2.65. Calculate the output voltage when the strain is 422 x
10-6. Take battery voltage as 10.2 V.

(d) Consider the Wheatstone bridge, where R2 = Rx = unknown resistance.

Show that under balanced condition, the ratio of arm resistances is given by
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅𝑥 𝑅4

Solution
Consider the case where we want to balance the bridge, and R2 = Rx = unknown
resistance
𝑉𝑎 − 𝐸 𝑉𝑎 − 0
+ =0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑥
1 1 𝐸
𝑉𝑎 ( + ) =
𝑅1 𝑅𝑥 𝑅1
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 𝐸
𝑉𝑎 ( )=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑥 𝑅1
𝐸𝑅𝑥
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑅 +𝑅 (1)
𝑥 1
Also
𝑉𝑏 − 𝐸 𝑉𝑏 − 0
+ =0
𝑅3 𝑅4
1 1 𝐸
𝑉𝑏 ( + ) =
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅3
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 𝐸
𝑉𝑏 ( )=
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅3
𝐸𝑅4
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑅 (2)
3 +𝑅4
For balance, Equate (1) and (2)
𝐸𝑅𝑥 𝐸𝑅4
=
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅4
From which;
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅𝑥 𝑅4
 Question Four
(a) The maximum-normal-stress theory for brittle coatings indicates that cracks will form
whenever 𝜎1 𝑐 = 𝜎𝑢𝑡 and 𝜎2 𝑐 = 𝜎𝑢𝑡 .

Where 𝜎𝑢𝑡 is the ultimate tensile strength of the coating. Show that failure equations for the
coating in terms of stresses applied to the specimen are;
𝜎1 𝑠 (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎2 𝑠
+ ≥1
𝜎𝑜 𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑜 𝑑

𝜎2 𝑠 (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎1 𝑠
+ ≥1
𝜎𝑜 𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑜 𝑑
Where the symbols c and s stand for the coating and specimen respectively (10 marks)

For a specimen with 𝜀𝑥𝑠 and 𝜀𝑦𝑠 and coating with 𝜀𝑥𝑐 and 𝜀𝑦𝑐 then,

𝜀𝑥𝑐 =𝜀𝑥𝑠 … .(1.1a)

𝜀𝑦𝑐 =𝜀𝑦𝑠 … (1.1b)
1
But 𝜀𝑥𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 (𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 ) (1.2)
1
𝜀𝑥𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 (𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 )… (1.3)
1
𝜀𝑦𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 (𝜎𝑦𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 ) .(1.4)
1
𝐸𝑦𝑠 = (𝜎𝑦𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠 ) .(1.5)
𝐸𝑠

Substituting (1.2) and (1.3, into (1.1a), we have

1 1
(𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 ) = 𝐸𝑠 (𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 ) (1.6)
𝐸𝑐

𝐸𝑠
Or 𝐸𝑐 = (𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 ) = (𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 )… (1.7)
𝐸𝑠
Letting =𝐴 Then (1.7), can be re-written as:
𝐸𝑐

𝐴𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 = 𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 … .(1.8)

Substituting (1.4) and (1.5) into (1.1b, we have

1 1
(−𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝜎𝑦𝑐 ) = 𝐸𝑠 (−𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝜎𝑦𝑠 ) (1.9)
𝐸𝑐
Or −𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴𝜎𝑦𝑐 = −𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠 + 𝜎𝑦𝑠 (1.10)

Eliminating 𝜎𝑥𝑐 from 1.8 and (1.10), Multiplying (1.8) by 𝑣 𝑐 gives:

2
𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 = 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 (1.11)

−𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴𝜎𝑦𝑐 = −𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠 + 𝜎𝑦𝑠 …. (1.10)

Adding (1.11), and (1.10) gives

2
𝐴𝜎𝑦𝑐 (−𝑣 𝑐 + 1) = 𝜎𝑥𝑠 (𝑣 𝑐 −𝑣 𝑠 ) + 𝜎𝑦𝑠 (−𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 + 1)

Or
𝐸𝑐
𝜎𝑦𝑐 = 2 [(𝑣 𝑐 −𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 + (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠 ] … (1.12)
𝐸 𝑠 (1−𝑣 𝑐 )

To solve for 𝜎𝑥𝑠 , we eliminate 𝜎𝑦𝑐 from (1.8) and (1.10). Multiply 1.10 by 𝑣 𝑐

𝐴𝜎𝑥𝑐 − 𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 = 𝜎𝑥𝑠 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠 ……… (1.8)

2
−𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑐 = −𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠 + 𝑣 𝑐 𝜎𝑦𝑠 (1.13)
2
𝐴𝜎𝑥𝑐 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 ) = 𝜎𝑥𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 ) + 𝜎𝑦𝑠 (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )
𝐸𝑐
Or 𝜎𝑥𝑐 = 2 [(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 + (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠 ] … … . (1.14)
𝐸 𝑠 (1−𝑣 𝑐 )

Max principal failure occurs when the maximum stress is greater than a certain critical
value 𝜎𝑢𝑡
1−𝑣𝑐𝑣 𝑎
Where 𝜎𝑢𝑡 = ( 2 ) 𝐸𝑐 𝜀𝑠𝑑 + 𝜎𝑅𝑐 … … . ≥ 𝜎𝑢𝑡 − 𝜎𝑅𝑐
1−𝑣 𝑐

Where 𝜎𝑅𝑐 =residual hydrostatic stress in the coating by application of any load

From (1.4) Minimum value of 𝜎𝑥𝑠 to cause crack when 𝜎𝑦𝑠 = 0 then eq… by 𝜎0𝑑 and
(1.14) reduces to
𝐸𝑐
𝜎𝑥𝑐 = (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑 = 𝜎𝑢𝑡 − 𝜎𝑅𝑐
𝐸 𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 2 )
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐
[(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 + (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠 ] = (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑
𝐸 𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 ) 𝐸 𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 )
(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 +(𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠
+ ≥1
(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑
 𝜎𝑥𝑠 +(𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠
+ ≥1
𝜎0𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑
Similarly
For cracks to occur
𝜎𝑦𝑐 ≥ 𝜎𝑢𝑡 − 𝜎𝑅𝑐
𝐸𝑐
[ (𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 + (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑦𝑠 ] ≥ 𝜎𝑢𝑡 − 𝜎𝑅𝑐
𝐸 𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 )

The Min value of 𝜎𝑦𝑠 to cause crack when 𝜎𝑥𝑠 = 0 i.e 𝜎0𝑑 from 1.16 is
𝐸𝑐
2 [(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑 ] = 𝜎𝑢𝑡 − 𝜎𝑅𝑐 (1.17)
𝐸 𝑠 (1−𝑣 𝑐 )

Equating (1.16) and (1.17), we have.

𝐸𝑐
(𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎𝑥𝑠 + (1 − 𝑣 𝑣 𝑐 𝑠
)𝜎𝑦𝑠 ≥ [(1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )𝜎0𝑑
𝐸 𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 2 )

Or
𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎𝑥𝑠
( ) ≥1
1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 𝜎0𝑑

(b) At a certain point, A on a steel specimen, cracks in one direction begin to appear when the
external load is 0.5 kN and 𝜀𝑠 𝑑 = 600 𝜇𝑚/𝑚. This coating was removed; a new coating
was applied and cured while a load of 1.5 kN was maintained on the specimen. On partial
release of the 1.5 kN load to 0.65 kN cracks perpendicular to those observed in the first set
began to appear at the same point A and 𝜀𝑠 𝑟 = 700 𝜇𝑚/𝑚.
Assuming 𝑣 𝑎 = 0.32, 𝑣 𝑐 = 0.42, 𝑣 𝑠 = 0.30 and 𝐸 𝑠 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, find the principal
stresses at A when the external load is 0.75kN. Assume maximum tensile theory of
failure.

Ex=0.5 KN 𝜀𝑠𝑑 = 600

Nev=0.65KN 𝜀𝑠𝑟 = 700𝑚/𝑚 va=0.32
vc=0.42 Es=200Gpa
vs=0.3
1 − 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑎
𝜎0𝑑 = ( ) 𝐸 𝜀 𝑑 … … (1.4)
1 − 𝑣𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 − 0.32 × 0.42
=( ) [200 × 109 × 600 × 600−6
1 − 0.32 × 0.3
 = 114.902𝑀𝑃𝑎
We also know that relaxation loading gives
𝜎1𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )2 𝜀𝑠𝑟 𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠
= [1 + [ ]]
𝜎0𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 2 )(1 − 𝑣 𝑠 )2 𝛽𝜀𝑠𝑑 1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠
0.65
𝛽= = 1.3
0.5
𝜎1𝑠 (1 − 0.42 × 0.3)2 700 0.42 × 0.3
= [1 + [ ]]
𝜎0𝑑 (1 − 0.422)(1 − 0.3)2 1.3 × 600 1 − 0.42 × 0.3

= 1.145
𝜎1𝑠 = 1.309 × 114.902
𝜎1𝑠 = 131.54 𝑀𝑃𝑎
And
𝜎2𝑠 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠 )2 𝜀𝑠𝑟 𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣 𝑠
= − [ [ ]]
𝜎0𝑑 (1 − 𝑣 𝑐 2 )(1 − 𝑣 𝑠 )2 𝛽𝜀𝑠𝑑 1 − 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑠

(1 − 0.42 × 0.3)2 700 0.42 − 0.3

=− 2 2
[ [ ]]
(1 − 0.42 )(1 − 0.3) 1.3 × 600 1 − 0.42 × 0.3
= −1.054
𝜎2 = −1.054 × 114.902
𝜎2𝑠 = −121.177
At external load of 0.75
We have
0.75
𝜎1𝑠 = 131.54 ×
0.5
= 197.31
0.75
𝜎2𝑠 = −121.77 ×
0.5
= −182 − 655