Chapter 1 Fundamentals of CNC Machine Weightage of Marks = 12, Teaching Hours = 10] 1.1 Introduction: Definition, Advantages and Applications of CNC 1.2 Classification of CNC; Point-to:point, Continuous path, Straight path, Absolute and Incremental co-ordinate system, Open loop and Closed loop control system 1.3. Constructional Elements of CNC: Machine structure-Bed, Slide ways, Column and tables. Spindle drives-Stepper motor, Servo motor & hydraulic motor, Movement’s actuators- re-circulating ball screw, linear motion bearings. Feedback elements- Positional and velocity feed backs. Automatic tool changer- Tool magazine, turret head. Pallet changer- Linear and rétary pallet changer. 1.4 Tooling: Indexable inserts, ISO code and nomenclature Pirie eke rate Atthe end of this chapter, students will be able to: ‘+ Explain the testing pararneters used for the giver * Select the relevant measuring instrument for the given job with justification. * Select the various measuring standards as per situation with justification. * Calculate the least count of all basic measuring instruments. instrument, INTRODUCTION OF CNG) || « CNC has memory storage it has more’ flexibility Computer numerical control is a NC system using because option can be clear added by software dedicated computer as the machine control unit. Use of computers adds two important capacities. (@) Storage of Data (b) Data Processing + Numerical control of machine tool is defined as a method of automation in which various functions and Processing of machine tool are controlled by letters and symbols. * In CNC machine in case of modification in Program, it can be done easily with the help of computer. Part Programme fed with the help of computer. ee een an revision, Elements of CNC Machine ACNC machine consist of following a major elements. (i). Input Device (i) Machine control unit (iii) Machine tool (iv). Driving system (W) Feedback Devices (Wi) Display unitProduction Processes Black Diagram of CNC Input device Machine control unit Fundamentals of CNC Maen |_| display unit Data} Control processing | loop unit | unit Miscellanies function Driving system & a —_——— Velocity Position feedback feedback| Feedbac Machine tool device Fig. 1.1 Advantages of CNC © CNC machines can be used continuously. © High accuracy in job manufacturing, * Training in the cube of CNC's is available through the use of virtual software. + Easier to Programs. + Easy storage of existing Programs. ‘+ Easy to change a program. + Avoid human errors. ‘+ CNC machines are safer to operate. + Complex geometry can produce. © Usually generates closer tolerance than manual machines. Applications of CNC Aerospace : CNC machines are used to make parts for aircraft and spacecraft, stich as turbine blades and engine ‘components. Automotive : CNC machines are used to make automotive parts, such as engine blocks and_ interior components. Architecture and Construction : CNC machines are used to create architectural models, facades and decorative elements for buildings. Art and Sculpture : CNC machines are cubed by artists and sculptors to create their work, Electronics : CNC machines are used to produce electronic components. Energy : CNC machines are used to produce components for renewable energy system. Healthcare : CNC machines are used to produce medical implants and surgical instruments. ‘Signage : CNC machines are used to create signage. Furniture : CNC machines are used to make cabinets and furniture. Musical instruments : CNC machines are used to make musical instrument. 1:2" CLASSIFICATION OF CNC) | (1) As per Feedback system : (@) point to point (©) continuous path (© straight path (2) A/cto the Programming method : (@) Absolute (©) Incremental @) A/cto type of control system : @) Open loop (0) Closed loop Point to Point Control System * Point to Point control system follows a some — what irregular straight line path.production Processes 13. | + Point to point control system in a CNC machine is a numerical control system that moves a tool from one | specific point to another. | + The PTP system is also known as the positioning system. Point 5 Cutter path, Point 2 . Point 4 Fig. 1.2 : Point to Point Control System © Point to Point control system is one where accurate positional control is required only to place the machine slide in fixed position and the machine tool side is required to reach a particular fixed coordinate point in the shortest possible time. + Inpoint to point control system, both the w/p and the tool are kept in a constant position. While the tool perform it's required duty. | © Point to Point system is suitable for drilling, boring, tapping, punch presses and jig boring machines. (b) Straight line Control System : ‘© Straight line control system is an extension of point to point control system with the provision of machining along @ straight line as in case of miling and turning operations, * Straight line control system is also known as linear interpolation, - * This is obtained by providing movement of controlled feed rate along the axis in the line of motion: y x Fig. 1.3 : Straight Line Control System (©) Continues path/contouring System : * This continues system is a high technology and most Versatile control system, Fundamentals of CNC Machine The continuous system generates a continuity controlled motion of the tool and w/p along different coordinate axis, * This control system enables the machining of profiles, contours and curved surface. y Fig. 1.4: Continuous Path The method by which continues path systems moves from one point to another point is called as interpolation. Ex. of continues path the control of water temperature in a heating jacket. (a) Absolute Co-ordinate System : ‘* In this system the positions are indicated from fixed zero point of reference point, ‘As shown in fig. all tool position are shown with reference to a fixed zero point. ‘+ An absolute coordinate system is a fixed point in space that is used to define the location of points, objects or machines. 4 Fig. 1.5 : Absolute Co-ordinate SystemProduction Processes 14 Incremental co-ordinate System : In this system the tool positions are indicated with Feference to a Privacy known location. As shown it fig. on tool. Position are shown with reference to a previous diamension point. ve Fundamentals of CNC Machin + Inthe dosed loop control system the displacement ga, be achieved to a very high degree of accuracy becays, a measuring device is used to determine th, displacement of the slide. + Open loop control system are less accurate comparey to closed loop system. + The feedback from the monitoring device they compared with the i/p signal is slide position jg regulated by the system until it agrees with the desired position fig. shown as closed loop control Keple 250 250-44] x “60 Fig. 1.6 : Incremental co-or Open Loop control System : * Machine tool control in which there is no provision to ‘compare the actual position of the cutting tool or w/p. with the i/p command value, are called as open loop control system. “Machine | “tool slide —— Fig. 1.7 : Open Loop Control System * In the open loop control system the electric motor continues to run until the absence of power, from input signal, indicates that the programmed location has been attained. ‘+ There is no monitoring of the actual displacement of system. TTacho generator © Machine $1 slide control i pu] Velocily feedback loop Measuring _sevies Displacement feedback loop Fig. 1.8 : Closed Loop Control System * In order to measure the speed of the motor and compared the actual speed with the programmed speed a velocity feedback, system is added to the system. the machine slide. In open loop control system, the control may indicate a movement of 50 mm whereas actually the slide may have moved only 49.8 mm, * In open-loop control system the actual displacement of the slide may vary with change in external conditions and due to wear of components of drive mechanism ie, backlash errors in leadscrew. ‘+ Open loop control system are less accurate compared to closed loop system. Closed Loop Control System : ‘© Ina closed loop control system the actual output from the system, i. ‘actual displacement of the m/c slide, is constant with the i/p signal the closed loop control system are characterized by the presence of feedback devices in the system. ‘* The design and construction of CNC machines should bbe such that it meets the following main objectives. ( High Precision and repeatability. i) Reliability i) Efficiency The machine bed is a structural element of a CNC machine that supports the entire machine and it's other components. * The bed is typically made from entered like gray, cast iron, artificial granite or steel plate welded parts,production Procossos ri sildo Ways/Guldo Way + Slideways are flat surfaces in CNC machine that machine components move along, + In the conventional machine tool there Is motal to metal contact between the slideway and the moving slides, Since the slide movements are very slow and m/c utilisation is also low, Fig. 1.9 : Linear Motion Gulde Ways Unear Motion gulde ways + In CNC myc there are support structure which moves on either bed ways or slideways, * To minimize friction wear in such sliding elements rolling elements are used, Column and Table Fundamentals of CNC Machine The column and table of CNC machine aro key compononts that support and hold w/p, cutting spindlo, and othr parts. * Column Two vertical columns are fixed to base of machine and support the cross rall, * Works Table The work table is designed to hold large and heavy ‘W/p, It can often include a rotary table or pallet system to machine multiple takes of a part at once, Spindle Drive: * In CNC machines large variation in cutting Is required, ‘+ The cutting speed may vary from 10 meters per minute to 1000 meters per minute or more, + The spindle drives in a CNC machine works by rotating 2 spindle at a constant speed to cut through materials, Steppor Motor : * Stepper motors convert electricity into rotation, not only a stepper motor convert electrical power into rotation but It can be very accurately in terms of now for it will rotate and how fast * Stepper motor are very easy to control. The below shows a typical motor based system, Flg. 1.10 : Stopper Motor A stepper motor is driven by a DC voltage applied through a driver, Stepper motor after excellent speed control, prove Positioning and repeatability of movement. Stepper motor are used in floppy disk, drives, Computer printer, plotters and slot machines. Hydraulle Motors : Hydraulic motors convert fluid power into mechanical energy to power a machine. The working principle of a hydraulic motor Is based on the following. Pascal's Law: Pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted equally in an. directions,Production Processes 16 Differential Areas: When pressurized fluid enters the motor, the pressure is exerted equally in all directions, Fluid Movements : The fluid movements pushes on the motor internal components such as gears, vanes or pistons. Pressure Difference The torque is related to the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet port. Servo Motor and Hydraulic Motor : * A sservo motors, work by using a closed loop control system, to compare the desired position of the motor with also it’s actual position and then adjust the motor's position to match the desired position. + Servo motors canbe controlled using pulse width ‘modulation (PWM) of analog voltage. The position of the motor is directly proportional to the duty of the PWM signal. ‘+ There are two types of servo motors AC and DC. AC motors are powered by an electric outlet, while DC servo motors are powered by batteries “Amplifier Seno) i motor Comparator: {4 4 Feed back signal Fig. 1.11 : Servo Motor * Recalculating Ball Screw : Circular form ‘Nut Fig. 1.12 : Recirculating Ball Screw A recirculating ball screw is a mechanical device that converts rotary motion inot linear motion using a ball bearing mechanism. The ball roll between the screw and nut’s matching helical grooves, eliminating friction and allowing the nut to move smoothly along the screws length. Fundamentals of CNC Mati, + itis precise and jachine. Between the threaded shaft and nut screw are ing steel balls. Which have tasks to transform the sig provides supetior performance in cy. friction into rolling friction. ng Importance : / sep rovides high efficiency (90%) and durability to on machine. + Itimprove wear resistance. ‘+ Itreduces friction between parts in context. + Itis used in power actuators. Feedback - Elements/Devices «Feedback system is actually measuring device, ‘+The feedback signals allowed to system to compare machine actual position with the i/p program value, + The comparison provides the ability of velocity ang position control the feedback is checked by transducers whose output is converted to digital form, ‘+ There are different ways to use transducers. (@) Analog to digital. (©) Linear or digital. (©) Absolute or incremental (@ Prinpal of operation. ‘These transducers are used in CNC machinery for following applications. 1. Check linear position of table movements. 2, Measure the rotation of spindle speed. 3. Measure the temperature at the tool tip. 4, Measure flow of coolants. 5. Measure flow and pressure of 0.1 in hydraul system. Linear motion bearing : * The sliding friction due to direct metal to meti contact, between the slide and slideways is replaced with rolling friction by the use of or friction base & rolling bearing. ‘+ Linear ball bush shown in fig, These are designed to run along precision ground. Ball Lp & Fig. 1.13: Linear Ball Bushing 1—cage WS \SProduction Processes + The main characteristic of linear molar bearing is that there is @ continues roller circulation which allows unlimited linear movement, ‘Automatic Tool Changer : + ATC is a tool proof system which is capable to m/c. Very simple to complex components having many number of operations. ‘+The section of tool is done automatically by sending command to control unit. +The tool is Automatically selected and changes based fon the tool control function (T word) used in part programme. * ATC can be done by using tool turrets and tool magazines, ‘+ For the automatic tool changer to operate it is necessary to have the following : (@) A tool organize where will sufficient number of tool can be stored. {b) The tool adopter that has a provision for pick up by the tool change arm. (0) Too! change procedure. It is the most sophisticated and full proof system method M06 T03 DO9. Where, Mos - ATC 104 - Tool number D09 ~~ Offset number Elements of ATC * Tool Turner : is the simplest ATC device with the tool change procedure. It need not require a tool change arm, * The tumer simply indexes hydraulically pneumatically to bring the tool into the posit machining. * It has tool storage capacity about 12 and generally used on turning centers drilling machines. Fig. 1.14 : Tool Turner Fundamentals of CNC Machine Rotary Encoders : +The rotary encoders is a shaft driven device delivering electrical pulses at it's output terminal. The pulse frequency is directing proportional to shaft speed. * The encoder consist of glass disc marked with precise circular pattern of alternate clear and periphery. Tool Magzine : + Tool magazine isa storage and tool changing device in a CNC Machining center that's used to manage and store cutting tools. + Tool magazines are an essential point of modern CNC marketing centers and are controlled by computers programmes. * Tool magazines automate the process at changing tools, which can improve productivity, accuracy and safety while reducing labour costs. + They can perform various machining tasks, such as milling, dilings boring and tapping. Turret head : " * The turret head can handle items with a wider diameter. * More cutting tools can be fitted onto a turret head since some tool stations. on turret disc support ‘multiple tool holders. Pallet Changer: + A pallet is @ movable and interchangeable part of a machine tool which helps to transport raw of finished parts from the machine in order reduce down time for part loading/unloading. + There are three main types of pallet changers in most CNC machine tools manual, automated and robotic. Automatic Pallet Changer : + Pallet is having standard dimensions. It holes and slots to fixthe w/p. + Further complex job used on these m/c requires relatively complex setup times. * Thus the actual setting up of work piece need to be done away from the m/c tool such that the machine utilization is improved for this purpose pallets are most commonly used with the machine centres. * The blank component can be clamped and unclamped Con the pallets at allocation away from machine spindle thus, not disturbing the machining function. * For changing pallets automatic pallets changes are available.Production Processes 18 Fundamentals of CNC Maching damaged. This feature drastically reduces downtime oo 000 7 ‘ i 80000 ' fand increases productivity, making indexable inserts 3338 Shes cy! ane etal component of mode Meta ning Seance | tools. 80 | 8808 ' Inert shapes Fig. 1.15 : Pallet Linear and Rotary Pallet Changer : * Linear and rotary pallet changers are used in manufacturing to automate processing steps and increase productivity. They can be used to: Arrange Pallets : ‘+ Linear pallets changers can arrange pallets in any ‘number and in flexible locations. Automate Processing : * Pallet changers can increase productivity by allowing pallets to be set up for various job. Run lights Outwork: * Pallet changers can run lights out work by staging multiple pallets to run continuously. en ee Machine tooling is the process of designating, cutting and showing materials that will be used to produce new machine parts. Tooling is the type of tooling that precisely controls its machining process through computer numerical control system. 4.4.1 Indexable Inserts ‘+ Metal turning is a crucial process in the manufacturing industry that involves removing material from a workpiece to create precise shapes ‘and sizes. To achieve optimum results in metal turning, the selection of the right tools is paramount. One of the most critical components of a metal turning tool is the indexable insert, a replaceable cutting edge that significantly impacts cutting performance and tool life, What are Indexable Inserts? Indexable inserts are cutting tool inserts made from various materials, such as tungsten carbide, cermet, ceramic, cubic boron nitride (CBN) and also High Speed Steel (HSS). They are designed to be easily mounted onto compatible tool holders, making them replaceable when the cutting edge becomes worn or @©@ a Fig. 1.16 Types of Indexable Inserts and Their Purposes Tungsten Carbide Inserts ‘© Tungsten carbide inserts are the most commonly used type of indexable inserts in metal turning due to their excellent ‘combination of hardness and toughness, They consist of a carbide substrate, often with a coating of titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbonitride FCN), aluminium oxide (Al203) or other materials enhancing wear resistance and tool life. Carbide inserts are versatile and suitable for a wide range of applications, including turning, facing, profiling, and threading both ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Cermet Inserts * Cermet is a combination of a ceramic and a metal (CERamic and METal). They usually consist of @ (Titanium) carbonitride substrate. Cermet inserts are ideal for high-speed machining of softer / non hardened steels. They can withstand high temperatures and provide superior wear resistance, making them well-suited for finishing operations. However, ceramic inserts have a lower tensile strength than carbide, requiring a good cutting strategy, especially with direction of cut to avoid breakage. Ceramic Inserts '* Ceramic inserts are ideal for high-speed machining of ‘cast irons, hardened materials and heat-resistant alloys. They can withstand extreme temperatures and provide superior wear resistance, making them well- ‘suited for roughing and finishing operations. However ceramic inserts are more brittle than carbide, requiring proper handling and a stable cutting environment.production Processes CBN Inserts + Cubic boron nitride (CBN) inserts are often the go-to choice for hard turning’applications, CBN is a synthetic material that rivals the hardness of diamond, allowing it to cut through hardened steel and cast iron effortlessly. «These inserts excel in producing precision finishes on hardened workpieces and are particularly valuable in industries like automotive and aerospace, ~ Diamond Inserts + «Diamond inserts are exceptionally hard and excel at machining non-ferrous materials like aluminium, copper, and other non-metallic substances. ‘+ These inserts are perfect for achieving superior surface finishes, especially in high-precision applications like jewellery making and optics manufacturing, Diamond inserts are not suitable for machining of steel materials. Purposes of Indexable Inserts Roughing Inserts: © Roughing inserts feature a robust cutting edge designed for aggressive material removal rates during the initial stages of turning © They efficiently remove large amounts of material, reducing cycle times and maximising productivity. Finishing Inserts + Finishing inserts have a sharper cutting edge and are intended for precise, high-quality surface finishes, * They produce smooth surfaces with minimal tool marks and are essential for achieving tight tolerances and fine details on workpieces. Grooving Inserts * Grooving inserts are specialised tools for creating ‘grooves, slots, and recesses on a workpiece. * They come in various geometries, enabling users to achieve different groove widths and depths, as well as varying levels of precision. Thread Turning Inserts * Thread turning inserts are optimised for threading operations, including internal and external threads. They are available in many thread profiles and pitches, allowing manufacturers to produce threads of different sizes and spec 19 Fundamentals of CNC Machine Drilling Inserts * Diiling inserts are optimised for hole-making operations, usually producing holes from solid, with optimised grades and geometries for all drilling operations, for all drill depths. © Indexable inserts play a vital role in metal turning, ‘empowering manufacturers to achieve high precision, improved efficiency, and prolonged tool life. By understanding the different types of indexable inserts and their specific purposes, you can make informed decisions when selecting the right tool for a particular machining task. Whether it's roughing, finishing, grooving, threading or drilling, the versatility of indexable inserts ensures that they remain an indispensable asset in the world of metal turning 1.4.2 180 Code The ISO designation system for indexable inserts (SO 1832) is a standardized system to name an indexable insert. The system is designed so that each important feature and dimension of the insert is shown using a code system, This becomes the name of the insert. This system has several advantages: © Unique naming of an indexable insert. All important features and dimensions are clearly stated in the name. © Some code positions relate to the insert carrier in which the insert can be mounted. 4.4.3 Nomenclature ‘* “Insert those small things that we use to cut material have a big impact on our shops profitability. it makes sense to know ISO turning insert nomenclature here is 2 quick explanation that makes it easy to remember insert _name, insert are known by an ISO naming convention that describes their shape and size. each alphabet and number in the name signifies an aspect of the inserts shape or size. Eg. the first alphabet is the shape while the last 2 numbers are the nose radius. * Action point: if you decide the tooling (eg. if you are programmer processes planner or industrial engineer), you have to know the naming convention thoroughly. as well as the logic behind selecting the shape and size of an insert.Production Processes Following figure shows the nomenclature of inserts. c[n[u[o @ae 12] 04 8 ls Inserts - ISO nomenclature Fig. 1.17 08 Nose radius Thickness Cutting edge length Insert type ‘Tolerance on size Clearance angle Shape * NC: It is defined as.a method of automation in which various functions and processing of machine tool are controlled by letters and symbols. * CNC: Computer numerical control is a NC system suing dedicated computer as the machine control unit. Elements of CNC : (@) Input Device (b) Machine control unit (<) machine tool (d) Driving system (©) Feedback Devices (f) Display unit. Classification of CNC: (A) As per Feed back system (2) Point to Point (2) Continuous path (3) Straight Path Fundamentals of Cc , (@ Alcto the programming method (2) Absolute (2) Incremental (o A/cto type of control system (2) Open loop (2) Closed loop Constructional Elements of CNC: Machine Structure bed a 2 8 @) (5) © slide ways Column Work Table Spindle Drive Stepper motor Gemiee tesa 1. What is CNC? 2. How CNC machines are Classified 3, Explain different elements of CNC machine. 4, What is point to point control system. 5. Explain Absolute and Incremental co-ordinate systen 6. With the help of diagram. Explain open loop # Closed loop control system. 7. Write a short note on elements of CNC machine. 8 Write a short note on Automatic Pallet Changer. 3K OKGrinding and Superfinishing Weightage of Marks = 12, Teaching Hours = 10] 2.1 Introduction: Definition of Surface Finish. Significance of Grinding in Manufacturing 2.2 Grinding Wheels: Abrasives, Grit size, Grade Structure and Bond Type 2.3 Grinding Wheel Dressing ond Truing-Purpose and Methods 2.4 Types of Grinding Machines: Construction and Working of Surface, Cylindrical and Internal Grinders 2.5. Super finishing Processes: Lapping, Honing, Buffing, Polishing etc. UU eRe Atthe end of this chapter, students will be able to: * Understand the definition and significance of surface finish in manufacturing’ and the critical role of grinding in achieving precise components. + Learn about grinding wheels, including abrasives, grit size, grade siructure, and bond types, essential for selecting the right tool. * Explore the purpose and methods of grinding wheel dressing and truing to moiniain efficiency and precision, * Gain knowledge of different types of grinding machines, including their construction and working principles for surface, cylindrical, and internal grinding. * Familiarize themselves with superfinishing processes like lapping, honing, buffing, and polishing for chieving superior surface quality. 24 INTRODUCTION. * Surface finish refers to the texture or quality of a surface, determined by the manufacturing process and iciple of Super Finishing: subsequent treatments. Various basic metal machining The principle of super finishing is to impart mirror like operations like turning, boring, milling, shaping, surface finish with dimensional accuracy to suit certain operation such as piston and cylinder of an LC. Engine. + The operations performed to obtain extremely high surface finish are called micro finishing operations. These operations remove a very small amount of metal and the surface finish obtained is specified in microns. Applications of Super Finishing Process: Super finishing process is used on: Es =2|.| © To machine quite operation of machine parts. For good appearance. “2 drilling etc. produces fairly accurate surface sizes. But they do not produce a high degree of surface finish. + Inmany cases such parts do not readily suit the service they are intended for and are subjected to one or further operations to obtain the desired surface finish ‘on them. Surface finish has an influence on properties like wear, friction and corrosion resistance. ; Surface Finish is essential for the following purposes: | Su'faceofslip gauges’ * To reduce the fiction between two mating parts | > Tnnet and outer race of bearing lang Teac * Balls and rollers of bearings. For controlling wear. eer acing Pati Tee ee ee ataceuracies, | °8ton rod and pins, ieve dimensional and geometric + Limit Gauges. To increase fatigue strength @ayProduction Processes * Surface plate. * Engine valve and valve seat. ‘+ Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinder bore, * Long tubular parts, bearings, ring gauges ete. 2.1.1 Significance of Grinding in Manufacturing The significance of grinding machining in manufacturing is : * To achieve high dimensional accuracy, ensuring tight tolerance in critical components. * Provides superior surface finish, reducing roughness for improved aesthetics and functionality. * Enables machining of hard materials like hardened steel and ceramics, which are difficult to cut * Shapes complex geometries and contours, suitable for tools, molds, and precision parts. * Improves wear resistance, fatigue life, and friction properties by refining surface quality. ® Corrects deformations or inaccuracies from earlier Processes, ensuring precise dimensions. * Widely used in industries like automotive, aerospace, and too} manufacturing for fine finishes. * Sharpens cutting tools and creates precise edges for enhanced performance. \2.2 GRINDING WHEEE |) SE * A grinding wheel is a multi-tooth cutter made up of many hard partiles known as abrasives which have been crushed to leave sharp edges that cut the workpiece. Abrasive grains are mixed with a suitable bond which hold the particles when the wheel is in use. * The wheel consists of one piece or is made of segments joined together. The properties of grinding wheel depend on type of abrasive, type of bond, Grit or Grain size, Grade of the wheel and structure of the wheel. ©The properties of grinding wheels are influenced by: (2) Type of Abrasive. (©) Type of bond. (©) Grit or Grain size. (a) Grade of the wheel (©) Structure of the wheel. Grinding and Supertinishy, Perfnthing 2.2.4 Abrasive ‘ringing wheels are made of abrasive particles cae, ‘Grains’ bonded together by suitable bond. Abrasive ig hord material which can be used to cut or wear away oy, materials. ‘Abrasive can be classified as: 1. Natural Abrasive «Sand stone. © Emery. + Corundum. = Diamonds. © Garnet. 2. Artificial Abrasive + Silicon carbide. ‘+ Aluminium oxide. © Boron carbide. * Zirconium oxide Efficiency of Abrasive particle depends on: © Purity. ‘© Uniformity in composition. © Hardness. * Toughness: For tough abrasive, wheel life is more. + Sharpness of fracture: Better cutting action is obtained by sharp edged abrasive, 2.2.2 The Bond Bond is the substance which when mixed with the abrasive grains, holds them together enabling the mixture to be shaped to form grinding wheel. The Bonding material. should have the following properties: ‘+. Itshould withstand the grinding temperature. * It should withstand the spindle speed without disintegration, * It should be capable of retaining the abrasive grain during cutting operati * Bond should be rigid to enable the grit to penetrate and cut the work, ‘Types of Bonding Materials: There are several type of bonding materials as given below: 1. Vitrified Bond (Vv): * Vitrified bond is used for making vitrified grinding wheels. It is made by bonding clay melted to a gles like consistency with abrasive grains. n.production Processes 2 3. 4 The clay and abrasive grains are thoroughly mixed together with sufficient water to make the mixture uniform. The mixture is moulded to the desired shape and dried to a point where it can be handled. It is then heated in a kiln at about 1200°C for about one week to vitrify the bond. Vitrified bond gives good strength. Wheel can be made dense or porous; therefore, 75% of grinding wheels are with vitrified bond. The only disadvantage of vitrified bond is that is brittle and sensitive to impact. Vitrified bond designated by letter the ‘V'. Silicate Bond (5): Silicate bond is used for making silicate wheels. The silicate bond is made by mixing abrasive grains with ium silicate, pressed in mould to give it the required shape, dried and backed in a furnace at a temperature of 260°C for several days Silicate wheels are water proof, Silicate bonded wheels, have limited applications as they are soft, comparatively weak and have low production capacities. Silicate bond is used for making wheels of large diameters above 90 cm. Silicate bond wheel is designated by letter 'S’. Shellac Bond (E): Shellac bond is used for making elastic wheels. In this process, the abrasive and shellac are mixed in heated containers and then rolled or pressed in heated moulds. Later the shapes are backed for a few hours at a temperature of 150°C. The elasticity of this bond is greater than any other type and has considerable strength. It is not interided for heavy duty work and used for finishing chilled iron, ‘ast iron, steel rolls, hardened steel cams, aluminium pistons, cam shaft grinding, scissors and cutlery Shellac bond wheels are made in small size upto 3 mm. Shellac bond is designated by letter ‘E’ Resinoid Bond (B): The resinoid bond is used for making resinoid wheels. The resinoid wheels are manufactured by mixing abrasive grain with synthetic resin and other Compound. The mixture is placed in moulds and heated at about 200°C. At this temperature, the resin sets to hold the abrasive grains in wheel form. Wheels bonded with the synthetic resin, such as bakelite is used for application, that demand strong and high speed wheels, which can Femove stock very rapidly. 23 Grinding and Superfinishing It is used. for precision grinding cams and rolls requiring high finish. The resinoid bonded wheel i denoted by the letter’ 5. Rubber Bond (R): © Rubber bond is used for manufacturing vulcanized wheels. It is made by mixing abrasive grains with pure rubber and sulphur. The mixture rolled into sheets, and wheels are punched out of the sheets on a punch press and finally wheels are vulcanized. * The rubber bonded wheels are more resilient, less heat resistant and denser than resinoid wheels. It is used where good surface finish is a primary requirement. They are strong and tough enough to make extremely thin wheels. Rubber bonded wheels are designated by the letter 'R. 2.2.3 Grit or Grain Size (4-1200) + The grit or grain number indicates the size of abrasive used. for making a grinding wheel. These sized particles are called grains or grits. + The choice of grain size is determined by: (@) Noture of grinding operation. (b) Material to be ground. (©) Material removal rate. (@) Surface finish desired. ‘©The size of grains is expressed by the size of the screen ‘opening at a time of sorting after crushing. The grain size 30 means there are 30 openings per square inch in 2 screen which is used for sorting, * The grain size is designated by number from 6 to 600. Number 4 being coarser and 1200 being finer. The grain size may be classified as: + Coarse. * “Medium. ° Fine. + Very fine. Various abrasive gra course to very fine are : izes commonly used from very Grit Designation | __ Grain size or Grit Coarse 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24 Medium, 30, 36, 46, 54, 60 Fine 70, 80, 90,100, 120, 150, 180 Very fine 220, 240, 280, 320, 360, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200Production Processes 2.2.4 Grade of the Wheel (A-z) * The grade means degree of hardness of the wheel means the hardness with which the bond holds the cutting points or abrasive grains in a place. It does not. tefer to the hardness of the abrasive grain. The hardness of a grinding wheel depends on: © Hardness of the material being ground. © Arcof contact. © Wheel and work speed. © Condition of grinding machine, Hard wheels are recommended for soft material and soft wheels are recommended for hard work materials. The words ‘hard’ and soft’ refer to the holding power or strength of the bond. The grade shall be indicated in all bonds and processes by a letter of the English alphabet. ‘A’ denotes the softest and ‘2’ denotes the hardest grade. Grades can be classified as: Loft. [Link]. _3, Hard. Grade Scale Soft Medium Hard ABCDEF| LAKLMN, |QRSTU,V,W, GH OP XYZ Structure of Wheel (1-15): ‘+ Abrasive grains are not packed in the wheel but are distributed through the bond. The structure of a grinding wheel depends on the grain spacing ie, the ‘manner in which the abrasive grains are distributed throughout the wheel. The relative spacing is referred to as the structure and denoted by the number of cutting edges per unit area of structure and denoted by the number of cutting edges per unit area of wheel face as well as by number and size of void spaces between grains. The primary purpose of structure is to. provide chip clearance and may be open or dense. © Wheel structures commonly used are indicated by numbers varying from 1 to 15 or higher, 1 being the closest and 15 being the most open. Dense|1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 io 11 12 13 14 15 Open | 9 or_higher The structure of grinding wheel depends on: + Hardness of material being ground, * Surface finish desired, + _Nature of grinding operation. 24 Grinding and Supertnihing 3 GRINDING WHEEL DRESSING Dressing is an operation performed on a gringiy viheel vith the objective of restoring its cutting abit, «The basic principle of dressing involves generating ang exposing new cutting edges on the wheel surface, Th, is achieved by fracturing the existing abrasive grain, and ensuring the desired protrusion of abrasive particles on the surface. + Additionally, the operation serves to unload the grinding wheel, removing workpiece meters, embedded on its surface after the grinding process, Grains with high Protrusion 944 ft Ms i qh iy Grains ds with Small > Protrusion o Wheel surface afer dressing operation Wheel surface before dressing ‘operation Fig. 2.1 : Dressing of grinding wheel * By performing this operation, the grinding wheel regains its efficiency, enabling machining with higher feed rates and greater depth of cut, thereby reducing machining time wihile improving accuracy. * Dressing is required at regular intervals to maintain the sharpness of the abrasive grains and the appropriate protrusion on the wheel's surface. 2.3.1 Purpose of Dressing ‘+ To restore the cutting efficiency of the grinding wheel by exposing fresh abrasive grains. + To remove debris and embedded material that clogs the wheel during use. + To maintain the sharpness and protrusion of abrasive grains for efficient cutting. * To improve the grinding wheel's performance, allowing higher feed rates and depth of cut for faste machining with precision. 2.3.2, Methods of Dressing * Single Point Diamond Dresser: A diamond tipped tool scrapes across the wheel surface, exposing shatP abrasive grains.production Processes + Multipoint Diamond Dresser: it uses multiple iamond points for a broader, more even dressing of the wheel. + Dressing Stlek: A manually applied stick made of aluminum oxide or silicon carbide used to clean and sharpen the wheel + Rotary Dressing Tool: A rotating tool with embedded diamonds sed for automatic dressing in. high precision applications. 23.3 Grinding Whee! Truing + Truing is an operation performed to restore the shape of a grinding wheel that has become deformed or worn, +The purpose of truing is ensuring that the periphery of the wheel is concentric with its central bore and imparts a precise form to the wheel's surface, Truing is typically carried out using the same tool as dressing but with a lighter depth of cut. ‘Near perfect roundness, periphery concentric to the central bore Imperfect periphery profile ‘Wheel after: truing operation Grinding whee! Grinding wheel spindle Wheel before ttuing operation Fig.2.2 : Grinding wheel truing Purpose of Grinding wheel truing: * To restore the original shape and geometry of the grinding wheel, ensuring concentricty with its central bore. * To eliminate deformities, such as runout or uneven surfaces caused by wear. * To ensure the grinding wheel maintains precise dimensions and form for consistent machining results. Methods of Grinding wheel truing: * Single Point Diamond Tool: A diamond tool used to feshape the wheel and correct concentricity. Cluster Diamond Tools: Multiple diamonds arranged in a cluster to perform the truing operation more evenly and efficiently. Grinding and Superfinishing + Roller Truers: Specialized devices that reshape the wheel surface using a rotating roller. + Profiling Tools: Used to impart specific shapes oF profiles to the grinding wheel, often in form-grinding applications, 2.4" TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES 2.4.4 Types of Grinding Machines Grinding machines are classified according to the quality of surface finish produced are: 1, Rough Grinders: The main purpose of rough grinder is to remove stock without any reference of accuracy. The accuracy and surface finish obtained is of secondary importance. Generally used rough grinders are: 1, Floor stand and bench grinders. 2. Portable and flexible shaft grinders. 3. Swing frame grinders. 4, Abrasive belt grinders. n Grinders: The main purpose of precision grinders is to finish part to very accurate dimensions. The surface finish and high degree of accuracy is main function of precision grinder. According to the type of surface generated, precision grinders are classified as: 1. Cylindrical Grinders. * Centre type (Plain). ‘ + Centre type (Universal). + Centre-less. 2. Internal Grinders. + Chucking. (Plain, (i) Universal. Planetary. + Centre-less. 3. Surface Grinders. 2 + Reciprocating table. (i) Horizontal spindle. (ii) Vertical spindle. + Rotary table, (Horizontal spindle. (il) Vertical spindle 4, Tool and Cutter grinders. * Universal. + Special 5. Special grinding machines.Production Processes 2.4.2 Construction and Working of Surface Grinder Surface grinder is used to finish the surface produced by milling, shaper and-planer. It is intended to grind flat surface. Surface grinder may be of reciprocating or rotary table type. The spindle may be vertical or horizontal (@) Horizontal Spindle Reciprocating Table Surface Grinder: Most of the surface grinders are of the horizontal spindle type. It consists of a horizontal spindle carrying a straight grinding wheel. Work can be clamped on a magnetic table, which reciprocates. For taking depth of cut, the grinding wheel can be fed downwards. The amount of feed is very small, about 0.005 to 0.15 mm. The grinding area is small and the speed is uniform over the grinding surface. It is used for the tool room for light work. Fig. 2.3 : Horizontal Spindle Reciprocating Table Surface Grinder (b) Horizontal Spindle Rotary Table Surface Grinder: Wheel spindle { Direction of rotation Infeed }: Horizontal Spindle Rotary Table Surface Grinder 26 Grinding and Supertinishy, thing wh is used for facing circular work and narrow «i Work is clamped on a rotary table and the grin vuheel is mounted on a horizontal spindle, Workgig re normally arranged in a circle concentric with yy, circular magnetic chuck. ‘The table is made to rotate in the opposite direction gy the wheel, The vertical feed is given by moving th, wheel head along a column and the cross feed by thy horizontal movement of the wheel spindle. Vertical Spindle Reciprocating Table Surfags| Grinder: oO ‘Wheel spindle nm {3 eS een Fig. 2.5: Vertical Spindle Reci Table Surface Grinder In this type of machine, the grinding wheel spindleis vertical. Work is clamped on a table that reciprocate: under a rotary grinding wheel. Grinding is performed by the face of the wheel, In this type of machines cupped, cylindrical of segmental grinding wheels are used, The grinding ate is large and large quantity of stock is removed. (@) Vertical Spindle Rotary Table Surface Grinder:production Processes + In this type of machine, a grinding wheel is mounted on a vertical spindle. The work is mounted on a magnetic chuck that rotates. It rotates in the opposite direction to that of the wheel, 2.4.3 Construction and Working of Cylindrical Grinder Cylindrical grinders are used to produce cylindrical or conical shapes on a workpiece. The workpiece is mounted between the centers and the face of the grinding wheel passes over the external surface of the workpiece. The ajindrical center type grinders may be of plain, universal cor centerless type. ‘A. Plain Centre Type Grinders + It consists of a base that rests on the floor and supports other parts of grinder. The lower table is mounted on longitudinal guide ways of bed and the upper table is mounted on top of the lower table, The lower table reciprocates longitudinally and the upper table swivels about a vertical axis on the top surface of Grinding and Superfinishing the lower table through some angle to accommodate the taper surface. The headstock is mounted on top of the upper table and tailstock is mounted at the other end of the table. A separate grinding wheel having grinding wheel spindle and motor is mounted on guide ways of the bed that are perpendicular to the longitudinal guide ways of the bed. On plain cylindrical grinders, the workpiece is usually held between the centres of the headstock and tailstock. Head stock hold support and rotate the workpiece. The tail stock gives support at dead centre. The rotating work is traversed across the face of the rotating grinding wheel. Grinding wheel is fed crosswise to obtain the depth of cut and lower table is reciprocated to finish entire length of the workpiece. Plain centre type cylindrical grinders are used for heavy, repetitive, simple types of external grinding operations on plain or stepped surfaces, cylinders, taper surface etc. Lower table Tall stock Upper table Fig. 2.7 : Plain Cylindrical Centre Type Grinder 8. Universal Center Type Grinders: Universal center type grinders have added features 1 The head stock can be made to carry live or dead center as desired. 2. The head stock can be swiveled in a horizontal plane. 3. The wheel éan be raised or lowered and can also be swiveled to 90° to grind taper surfaces having large taper angle. * With the facility of hydraulic drive for wheel head approach and feed, table traverse and elimination of backlash in the feed gives greater versatility to this ce: c machine. This makes possible surface grinding, taper grinding, and cylindrical grinding. Centre-less Grinders: In center-less grinding, work is not held between the centers but the work is held between the two rotating Wheels and the workpiece is supported on a work rest and is backed up by a regulating wheel. This eliminates the work holding devices. Regulating wheel controls the speed of rotation of the workpiece. It also controls the rate of feeding of work piece past the grinding wheel.Production Processes The axial movement of work past the grinding wheel is, obtained by titing the regulating wheel at right angle from horizontal. The axis of the regulating wheel and grinding wheel is offset by 3° to 4° for the slow axial movement of the workpiece. The angular adjustment ‘of 0* to 10°is provided in the machine for this purpose. Diamond ees Regulating wnat! Lh Cen ine ot Regulating wet Fig. 2.8 : Centre-less Grinding The Centre-less grinding is done in one of following methods: 1. Through feed grinding. 2. Infeed grinding. 3. End feed grinding. Through Feed Grinding: It is the simplest method used for straight. cylindrical work such 2s rollers, pins and straight long bars. In this case the regulating wheel and grinding wheel are adjusted equal to the desired diameter of the work piece and the job is fed and passed through the wheels. . In Feed Grindin It is used for grinding headed, stepped and tapered parts, This method is similar to through feed and there is no relative axial movement between work and grinding wheel, as the length of grinding has to be controlled, The length of the workpiece to be ground should be smaller than the width of the grinding wheel. To control the length of grinding the workpiece is placed on work rest against an end stop and regulating wheel is advanced to grinding wheel by lever arrangement until the workpiece is reduced to the desired diameter. Grinding and Superfinishing Grinding rinding ead Regulating meus "eget (0) Through Feed (bo) In-fosd (c) End Feed Fg, 29: Method of ones Grinding 3. End Feed Grinding: It is used for short tapers. The either regulating wheel or grinding wheel is dressed to required taper and shape. Advantages of Centre-less Grindi + The rate of production is much higher in center-less grinding than in cylindrical grinding. Hence, the cost of production is less. * As true floating condition existed during the grinding process, there is no need of holding the workpiece between the centers. Hence, axial thrust is absent. ‘+. The workpiece is rigidly supported along the entire length, hence better stability. * Large grinding wheels can be used. Wheel wear and tear is less and hence less maintenance. ‘+ The work is supported throughout its length and there is no deflection, therefore a long slender workpiece can be ground easily. + The process is continuous and can be used for production work. ‘+ The size of work is easily controlled. ‘+ Asemi-skilled operator can perform the operation, Disadvantages of Centre-less Grinding: * The workpiece having multiple diameters of steps and shoulders cannot be handled, * The workpiece having flat surfaces and keyways can be ground, + In the case of a hollow workpiece, shape may change. Applications of Centre-less Grinding: + Centre-less grinding is used for exterior cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces on workpiece that are not held and rotated on centers,production Processes «Though a feed grinder is used for grinding long and slender shafts or bars, + In feed grinder is used for form grinding and to grind shoulders. «End feed grinder is used for grinding tapered surfaces + Aninternal center-less grinder is used to the surface of any hollow workpiece, 2.4.4 Construction and Working of Internal Grinder ish internal Internal grinders are used mainly for finishing round holes Itis also used for finishing internal bores and tubes having more than one diameter. Internal grinders may be of the chucking type, planetary type or center-less type. Chucking Grinders: «In chucking type grinders, the work is held in a chuck and rotated. +The revolving wheel spindle moves in and out of the hole during the operation. Planetary Grinders: + Ina planetary grinder, a workpiece is held stationary and mounted on the table of the machine. + The wheel not only rotates on its axis but also travels ina circular path of the desired diameter. So that, it is possible to grind large holes of varying diameter depending upon how much the wheel spindle is made torrun eccentric. + This machine is used only for bore grinding of heavy or irregularly shaped work, which is difficult to rotate. Center-less Internal Grinders: Pressure rol Grinding whee! Ye Regulating rol © supper Fig. 2.10 : Internal Centre-less Grinding In center-less grinding the workpiece is rotated by the Outside diameter between the rolls. The outside diameter of the workpiece generates a path for grinding the inside diameter. Grinding and Superfinishing + This diameter is ground concentric to the outside diameter. This type of machine is used for work having ‘a repetitive nature. It has advantages similar to external center-less grinding. [2.5 SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES Various basic metal machining operations like turning, boring, milling, shaping, drilling, etc. produces fairly accurate surface sizes. But they do not produce high degree of surface finish. In many cases, such parts do not readily suit the service, they are intended for and are subjected to one or further operations to obtain desired surface finish on them. Surface finish has influence on properties like wear, friction and corrosion resistance. Surface Finish is essential for the following purposes: * To reduce the friction between two mating parts having a relative motion. * For controlling wear. * To achieve dimensional and geometrical accuracies. * To increase fatigue strength. ‘+ To machine quite operation of machine parts. * For good appearance. Principle of Super Finishing: * The principle of super finishing is to impart a mirror like surface finish with dimensional accuracy to suit certain operations such as the piston and cylinder of a LC Engine. ‘+ The operations performed to obtain extremely high surface finish are called micro finishing operations. These operations remove very small amount of metal and surface finish obtained is specified in microns. Different super finishing operations are: * Lapping. + Honing Against this, where the primary requirement is only the high degree of surface finish, and very close dimensional accuracy is not the primary need, the desired surface finish is obtained by, * Polishing + Buffing © Burnishing ¢ TumblingProduction Processes 2.10 Applications of Super Finishing Process: Super finishing process is used on- + Surface of slip gauges. ‘+ Inner and outer race of bearing, ‘Balls and rollers of bearings. + Sewing machine parts. * Piston rod and pins. + Limit gauges. © Surface plate, * Engine valve and valve seat. * Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinder bore. * Long tubular parts, bearings, ring gauges etc. 2.5.4 Lapping Lapping is a precision finishing process done on precision tools, gauges, and valves where resistance to wear of moving parts and better sealing characteristics are important. A thin layer of metal around 0.005 to 0.01 mm is usually removed by lapping. Thus, lapping is an abrading process employed for improving the surface finish by reducing roughness, waviness and other irregularities on the surface. The basic purpose of lapping is to minimize the extremely minute irregularities left on workpiece after machining. Principle of Lapping: Lapping is an abrasive rubbing process in which loose abrasive with vehicles functions as cutting points taking momentary support of the lap. The process consists of: * Use of loose abrasive between the lap and the work with the vehicle, ‘+The lap and workpiece are not positively driven but guided in contact with each other. The relative motion between the lap and work surface is continuously changing, The most effective path is the cycloid path. Pressure Abrasive Grains Fig. 2.11 : Principle of Lapping Grinding and Superfnishing Lap Material: The lap material should be softer than work piece, sq that abrasive gets embedded in the lap until it fractures | from the pressure of lapping action. Cast iron is the best | lap material. But brass, bronze, lead and soft steel can also be used. Abrasives used in Lapping: + In the lapping process, natural as well as artificial, abrasives are used. For harder workpiece hard abrasives are used and for softer workpiece, soft abrasives are used, Aluminum oxide is used for lapping soft ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Silicon carbide and corundum are used for hardened steel parts. © Diamond is the hardest material and is used for lapping cemented carbides and precious stones. For lapping small components, diamond dust or boron carbide in the finest grain size gives better results. For obtaining a highly reflective surface without any significant material removal, softer abrasive such as emery is used. Vehicle used in Lapping: Lubricant to hold and retain the abrasive grains during lapping is known as a vehicle. The purpose of a vehicle is to suspend abrasives and keep grains separated as well as lubricate the work. The general vehicle used is machine oil, water soluble oil, vegetable or alive oil, mineral oil, petroleum jelly and grease. The vehicte used should have following characteristics: + It should be able to hold the abr uniformly during operation + Its viscosity should not change with a change in temperature. particles + It should not evaporate quickly. * _Itshould be non-corrosive with the work piece. '* Its viscosity should match Lapping Speed and Pressure: For soft material, 0.07 to 0.2 Kg/cm?, and for hard ‘material pressure up to 0.7 Kg/cm? is applied. And normal speed used for lapping is between 1.5 m/s to 4 m/s, Lapping Allowance: the speed of lapping * ‘Lapping is not primarily used with metal removal intentions. As such, enough care should be taken to, ensure that too much material is not on the work surface to be removed by lapping.- production Processes ir should be kept in mind that smaller the amount of stock left the quicker the lapping process will be and higher will be the dimensional accuracy obtained. Keeping in view of this, the recommended range of lapping allowance to be left is as follows. 1. General lapping work. Allowance on surface: 0.0075 mm to 0.0125 mm. Allowance on diameter: 0.015 mm to 0.05 mm. 2. For lapping work which has been finish ground. Allowance on surface: 0.005 mm, Allowance on diameter: 0.01 mm, types of Lapping Operations: Lapping operation can be broadly classified into two main groups as: 1. Equalizing Lapping: It is the operation of running two mating parts or shapes together with an abrasive between them. When two such surfaces run together in contact with the abrasive, their surface finish is improved and any deviation of shape is corrected. Those results can be easily seen during the seating of tapered valves in their seats or when gears are rotated together with these objectives. 2. Form Lapping: Itis clear from the name itself, that it is not merely rubbing surfaces together, but itis the shale of the lap that is responsible for finishing a corresponding work surface. Lapping Methods and Machines: Lapping is done in following two ways: + By hand: Known as Hand lapping. ‘+ Bymachine: Known as Machine lapping Hand Lapping (@) Hand Lapping for Flat Work: + Inhand lapping, either the lap or work piece is held by hand or the motion of the other enables the rubbing of the two surfaces in contact. This method is widely used in lapping press work dies, moulding dies and ‘metal moulds for casting, limit gauges etc. In some cases, lapping compound is placed between the two surfaces and then ‘they are moved against each other. A few examples of this method are lapping of surface plate, engine valves and valve seat, Preparation of laboratory specimen to view microstructure under microscope. an Grinding and Superfinishing Fig, 2.12 : Hand Lapping (b) External Cylindrical Hand Lapping: * Ring lapping is done for finishing external cylindrical surfaces, Ring laps are made of soft close grained cast iron. The ring lap has several cuts, partially through and complete slits. Screws are provided for precise adjustment. The size of ring lap should be slightly shorter than the workpiece. ‘+ The ring lap is reciprocated over the workpiece surface. The abrasive and vehicle are fed through the slot to maintain a straight round hole in the lap. This type of lapping is recommended for stepped plug gauges or gauges made in small quantities. Slit Adjusting screw Fig, 2.13: Adjustable Ring Lap Hand Lapping Applications: © Press work dies, = Moul dies and molds for casting. * Moulds for casting. * Limit gauges, * Surface plate. * Engine valve and valve seat. Machine Lapping: * Machine lapping is performed for obtaining a highly finished surface on many articles like races of ball, roller bearings, gears, crank shaft, machine bearings, Piston, pins, gauges, gauge blocks, automobile and engine arts, micrometer spindles etc,Production Processes * A typical vertical spindle lapping machine consists of two circular plates, one over another. The lower plate has continuously rotating rings or cages, in which work with loose abrasive grain and vehicle is placed. The bottom plate is in rotary motion, These two motions Provide the gyratory motion to the workpiece. The Pressure is applied on the top plate and bottom. Stationary > _ 7 Rotating rings Vertical spindle Fig. 2.14: Machine Lapping * Some modern lapping machines are provided w vibratory motion instead of rotary motion. The lower plate carrying abrasive paper is fixed on its surface. Workpieces are held over this paper with light pressure from the top plate and the lower plate is vibrated to cause lapping * A centre-less grinding machine can be conveniently adopted to perform lapping operations of round work piece. The bonded wheels used in this case will be sufficiently large so that the workpiece is subjected to the abrasive action of the longer period on each pass. Other special features on these wheels will be that they will have their grains of a much finer grit. The rest of the setting and operation is same as that of centre-less grinding. Machine Lapping Applications: * Recess of ball and roller bearings. * Gears. Piston rings. * Slip gauges. * Crank shaft, 242 Grinding and Supertinish, Shi Advantages of Lapping: + Any material hard or soft can be lapped. There is no warping of lapped components, It provides iquid and gas tight seals without ug, gaskets and piston rings. + It removes the errors in gears and mabe transmission noise less. «Provides a superfine surface finish, grea, uniformity and optical flatness. Limitations of Lapping: « Itrequires an experienced and skilled operator, + Trial and error may be needed to get uniform result. 7 2.5.2 Honing a ef Rainbow Waviness Barrel o ft a Taper Bellmouth ——Msatignment Boringtootmark — Outefround Reamer chatter Fig. 2.15: Hole Geometry that can be Corrected by Honing * ‘Honing is an abrading process used mainly {0 finishing round holes by means of bonded abrasv stones called hones.’ Honing is primarily used © correct out of roundness, taper, tool marks and ax distortion. Mostly honing is done on internal cylindrica surfaces, such as automobile cylinder walls. Uses of Honing: * Itis used to correct some out of roundness. + Itis used to super finish internal bores or holes + Itis used to correct axial distortion. * It is used to remove tool marks and scratches. ‘* tis used to reduce friction between mating parts by increasing surface finish. + To obtain a better fit on mating parts.production Processes The hole geometry that can by as follows: Honing Stone: Ye corrected by honing is ig. 2.16 : Honing Stone + Honing stones are made from common abrasive and bonding’ materials, often impregnated with Sulphur, resin or wax to improve cutting action and lengthen tool life, The various abrasives used to make honing stones are silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, diamond ‘or cubic boron nitride. Silicon carbide is used for honing cast iron and non-ferrous materials, whereas aluminum oxide is used to hone steel parts. * Diamond is also used as an abrasive to hone parts made of ceramics or hard carbides. The abrasive grain size ranges from 80 to 600 grit. Almost every material can be efficiently honed. Materials of all varieties, including cast iron, aluminum, magnesium, brass, bronze, glass, ceramics, hard rubber, graphite and silver are the examples of honed material. * When honing is done manually, the honing tool is Totated and the workpiece is passed back and forth ‘over the tool. Length of motion is such that the stones extend beyond the workpiece surface at the end of each stroke, For precision honing, the work is usually held in the fixture and the tool is given a. slow reciprocating motion as it rotates. The stones are thus given a complex motion as rotation is combined with oscillatory axial motion. These two motions combine to give a resulting cross hatch lay pattern. * Honing stones may be held in the honing head by cementing them to metal shells, which are clamped into holders, or they are cemented directly into holders, 243 Grinding and Superfinishing * During honing operation, the honing head is not guided externally but floats in the hole being guided by the work surface. Coolants are essential to the ‘operation of this process, to flush away small chips and to keep temperatures uniform, Sulphurized mineral oll 7 lard oil is generally used for this purpose. Driving motor ore fia | romps ANY ——msice Z AS Rotation of honing too! Fig. 2.17 : Honing Honing Machine: Honing can be done on general purpose machines such as lathe, drill ete, but more economical results can be obtained by using honing machines for production work. The most common types of honing machines are: 1. Horizontal Honing Machine: ‘* These machines are mostly used for honing comparatively longer jobs such as gun barrels and long tubular parts. These machines have spindle in horizontal direction. On the spindle, a honing tool is mounted. The hone reciprocates and also rotates simultaneously. * The motion of the hone is controlled by an electric motor through the speed gear box. The work is held in 2 horizontal position and rotates about its own axis, No reciprocating motion is given to work. 2. Vertical Honing Machine: ‘* These machines hold the work as well as the tool in a vertical position, Usually the spindle head and hence the tool reciprocate and not the workpiece. The rotation spindle and hence the hone is accomplished by means of hydraulic drive in a vertical honing machine.Production Processes * The conditions of coolant are favorable in this machine as coolant flows uniformly over the entire workpiece surface and removes the chips easily. uide way. Honing head Spindle Driving motor Table lamp: Fig. 2.18: Vertical Honing Machine Advantages of Honing: c * The honing process enables highly accurate holes, as the possibility of vibration is very less. * Many holes can be honed simultaneously on multiple spindle machines. ‘+ Holes of any dimension can be honed. + The size can be controlled easily. ‘* As compared to other hole finishing methods, high productivity at low cost is obtained. ‘* Minimum of heat and distortion of work material Disadvantages of Honing: * It is impossible to improve lack of straightness in holes. * Horizontal boring creates oval holes. * Honing stone wear out fast. itis ifficult to hone tough non-ferrous metals due to glazing or clogging of the pores of the abrasive stick. 244 Grinding and Superfinishing Honing: jostly performed for sisting internal jnishing of gun barrels, big end and smay hale oo necting rod, cylinders of LC. Enging hydraulic and pneumatic cylinder bore, ong tubul, parts, bearings, ring gauges etc. «Honing is also used for finishing external surfaces like gear teeth, valve seats, recess of balls and ale piston rods, piston pins, spindle shafts etc. Applications of © Honing is m bearings, Difference between Honing and Lapping: Honing Lapping Honing is an abrading | Lapping is @ precision finishing process done on process used mainly for precision tools, gauges, and finishing round holes by means of bonded | valves where resistance to abrasive stones called | wear of moving parts and hones. better sealing characteristics are important. Honing is primarily used | Lapping is an abrading to correct out of | process employed for roundness, taper, tool | improving the surface finish marks and — axial | by reducing roughness, distortion. Mostly honing | waviness and other is done on internal | irregularities on the surface. oylindrical surfaces, such | The basic “purpose of as automobile cylinder | lapping is to minimize the walls. extremely minute irregularities left on the workpiece after machining. 2.8.3 Buffing * Buffing is a finishing operation that is usually performed after polishing to provide a much higher lustrous and reflective surface finish or glossy finish that cannot be obtained by polishing. The buffing and wheel is rotated with high speed and the workpiece to be buffed is made to rub against the charged wheel. ‘* The abrasives are bided to the wheel with the help of grease, kerosene or paraffin like binders, The abrasives Femove the minute amount of metal from the work Piece, eliminate fine scratches and gives a high reflective surface finish. * Buffing wheels are made of discs of linen, cotton broad cloth or canvas that are made firm by stitching to fasten the layers of cloth together.- production Processes bas Grinding and Superfinishing + Many types of abrasives are used for buffing like amorphous silica, aluminum oxide, and chromium exide. Amorphous silica is one abrasive that is highly suitable for buffing aluminum, copper, brass and die castings. Aluminum oxide powder can also be used as an abrasive for buffing of Stainless steel, chrome and nickel plate. Rouge is used for coloring on copper, brass, gold and silver, + Buffing can be done manually or automatically. The manual buffing machine uses a double ended shaft having wheels on both ends. The shaft is driven by an electti¢ motor through a belt and pulleys. «Buffing is different from polishing due to the fact that polishing is an abrasive operation used for metal removal, whereas buffing involves gentle plastic deformation of a surface to give bright smooth finish. Applications of Buffing: + Buffing is done to get a higher luster and reflective surface finish ‘+ It includes the parts of automobiles, motor cycles, bicycles, sporting items, tools, store fixture, commercial and residential hardware, house hold utensils, ete. 2.5.4 Polishing + Polishing is done to make a metal surface smoother and to produce a more uniform surface by removing deep scratches, nicks, discoloration and other surface imperfections occurring due to grinding, It is generally used as an intermediate operation done after grinding and before buffing. + An abrasive belt (endless) with a very fine grade abrasive rotates continuously on two rollers. The workpiece to be polished is hand held over this rotating belt. In this way a very thin layer is removed from the work piece. Sometimes polishing is performed to obtain a tolerance value of 0.025 mm or less. * The abrasives used for polishing are aluminum oxide ilicon carbide. Aluminum oxide is used for most carbon steel, alloy steel, high speed steel and non- ferrous metals, Silicon carbide is used for finishing low tensile strength materials such as brass, copper, cast iron and aluminum, Natural abrasives like emery and corundum are sometimes used in specialized operations for getting the finest quality finishes. The bonding agent used for the polishing wheel is either hot glue or cold silicate based cement. ‘Lubricants like beef tallow or beeswax are used to cool the running polishing wheel, The lubricants also decrease the tendency of the wheel to grab and hold particles of metal removed from the work. Applications of Polishing: ‘© Polishing is done for internal work on tools, dies, parts of fountain pens, parts of bicycle, turbine blades of jet engine, electric iron plates etc. ‘© Its also used for small hand tools like axes, hatches, screw drivers, hammer heads etc. 2.5.5 Burnishing * Bumishing is a cold working process by which improvernent in surface finish, dimensional accuracy and. work hardening can be obtained without removing the metal. It is a finishing operation and is normally done on parts that are turned, bored, reamed or ground, Any ductile or malleable material with hardness less than 49 HRC can be successfully burnished, * Itis a process of producing bright, shining and smooth surface of on metals. Bumnishing is done as a supplementary process after metal cutting operations like turning, milling, shaping operations. In this process, surface irregularities (peaks and valleys) formed by the cutting tool are considerably reduced and a high surface finish is obtained, Burnishing is a non-cutting operation and uses no abrasives. * The process is similar to barreling. In the burnishing process medium steel balls, shots or round pins, are added to the work in a barrel. The barrel is loaded nearly half with two volumes of shots to one volume of work piece. Water with the addition of some lubricating or cleaning agent like soap is also filled in the barrel. ‘+ The speed of rotation of the barrel is adjusted in such ‘a way that the work piece will not be thrown out of the barrel, There is no cutting action in burnishing. Instead, there is rubbing and peening action on the work surface, spreading minute surface irregularities into a flat surface. ‘+ It differs in tumbling as no abrasive is used in the process, Application of Burnishing: * Burnished surfaces are denser and less porous, reducing susceptibility to corrosion in applications such as marine equipment and pipelines.Production Processes Used in automotive components like engine cylinders and shafts to reduce surface roughness and improve ‘smoothness. Used for tools, bearings, and gear teeth to increase their lifespan by making surfaces more durable against abrasion Used on piston rods, valves, and rollers to create smoother surfaces that reduce friction and improve efficiency. Employed in manufacturing to achieve desired surface finishes without the expense of additional material removal processes. Surface finish refers to the texture or quality of a surface, determined by the manufacturing process and subsequent treatments. The basic principle of dressing involves generating and exposing new cutting edges on the wheel surface, Truing is an operation performed to restore the shape of a grinding wheel that has become deformed or worn. The purpose of truing is ensuring that the periphery of the wheel is concentric with its central bore and imparts a precise form to the wheel's surface. Lapping is a precision finishing process done on precision tools, gauges and valves where resistance to wear of moving parts and better sealing characteristics are important. A thin layer of metal around, 0.005 to 0.01 mm is usually removed by lapping. ‘Honing is an abrading process used mainly for finishing round holes by means of bonded abrasive stones called hones’. Buffing is a finishing operation that. is usually performed after polishing to provide a much higher lustrous and reflective surface finish or glossy finish that cannot be obtained by polishing. 246 10, 1. 12. Grinding and Supertinishing Polishing is done to make 2 metal surface smoother and to produce a more uniform surface by removing | deep scratches, nicks, discoloration and other surface | imperfections occurring due to grinding. tis generally | Used as an intermediate operation done after grinding | and before buffing. Burnishing is a cold working process, by which improvement in surface finish, dimensional accuracy and work hardening can be obtained without | removing the metal. | Define surface finish and explain its significance in manufacturing. What are abrasives, and how are they classified in grinding wheels? Explain the role of grit size in the performance of a grinding wheel. Discuss the importance of bond types and grade structure in grinding wheels. What factors influence the selection of a grinding wheel for a specific application? Why is dressing and truing necessary for grinding wheels? Explain the construction and working of a surface | grinder. Describe the operation of a cylindrical grinding machine. What are the features and applications of internal grinding machines? What is the purpose of superfinishing processes in manufacturing? Explain the working principles of lapping and honing, Compare lapping, honing, buffing, and polishing in terms of their applications and outcomes, co