(c) 2016 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

Topics
1. When Life Hands You Lemons…
2. Competing Factions
3. The Neo-Freudians and Ego Psychology
4. Anna Freud (1895-1982)
5. Object Relations Theories: Melanie Klein (1882-1960)
6. Carl Jung (1875-1961)
7. Social Psychological Theories: The Zeitgeist Strikes Again
8. Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
9. Karen Horney (1885-1952)
10. The Evolution of Personality Theory: Humanistic Psychology
11. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
13. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) The Fate of Humanistic Psychology
14. Positive Psychology
15. The Psychoanalytic Tradition in History
16. Selected Discussion Questions
 When Life Hands You Lemons…
• Maslow grew up isolated, unloved, and unwanted
– Described feelings of anger and hostility toward his father
– Mother openly rejected him in favor of his younger
brothers and sisters
• As an adult, Maslow’s ideas brought him the acceptance,
admiration, and adulation he had lacked as a child
 Competing Factions
• 20 years after Freud founded psychoanalysis, analysts split
into several factions
– Anna Freud
– Melanie Klein
– Karen Horney
– Carl Jung
– Alfred Adler
– Abraham Maslow
– Carl Rogers
• Analysts disagreed on basic points
The Neo-Freudians and Ego Psychology
• Neo-Freudians were loyalists who called for an expansion of
the concept of the ego
• Ego seen as having a more extensive role
• The ego was more independent of the id, possessed its own
energy not derived from the id, and had functions separate
from the id
• Suggested that the ego was free of the conflict produced
when id impulses pressed for satisfaction
• Less emphasis on biological forces as influences on
personality
 Anna Freud (1895–1982)
• Freud’s daughter would be the only Freud child to follow her
father’s path and become an analyst
• Developed strong emotional attachment to Freud; entered a
controversial 4-year analysis with him.
• Initially ambivalent about career; presented first paper in 1924
and later focused on ego psychology and child analysis.
• Never married; formed a lifelong friendship with Dorothy
Tiffany Burlingham.
• Dedicated life to advancing psychoanalytic theory and caring
for her father during his illness.
• Maintained deep emotional bond with Freud even after his
death (kept his coat, recurring dreams).
 Anna Freud (1895–1982)
Child Analysis
• Advanced psychoanalysis through child therapy and ego psychology
• 1927: Published Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis →
introduced play therapy and home observation for children.
• 1938: Moved to London; founded a clinic and training institute →
evolved into the Anna Freud Centre.
• Published extensively:
– Annual volumes of The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child (from
1945).
– Eight-volume collected works (1965–1981).
• 1936: Wrote The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense → clarified
defense mechanisms and expanded ego’s independent role.
• Defined and illustrated defense mechanisms using child analysis
examples.
• Established herself as a leading figure in psychoanalysis and child
psychology.
 Anna Freud (1895–1982)
▪ 1940s–1970s: Ego psychology became the dominant form of
psychoanalysis in the U.S.
▪ Developed by Anna Freud and other neo-Freudians.
▪ Goals
▪ Integrate psychoanalysis into scientific psychology.
▪ Simplify and operationalize Freudian concepts.
▪ Encourage experimental research on psychoanalytic ideas.
▪ Modify therapeutic techniques.
▪ Result
▪ Fostered a collaborative relationship between psychoanalysis
and academic experimental psychology.
▪ Marked a shift toward a more empirical and scientifically
grounded framework.
 Object Relations Theories

▪ Focus
▪ relationships with people (objects), not just instincts.
▪ Personality shaped by early mother-child bond.
▪ Goal
▪ child separates from mother → develops self & other
relationships.
▪ Emphasizes social/environmental influences over biological
drives.
▪ Key theorists
▪ Melanie Klein, Heinz Kohut.
 Object Relations Theories
Melanie Klein (1882–1960)
▪ Personal struggles
▪ Felt rejected, lifelong depression, family conflicts.
▪ Theory focus
▪ Mother-child bond in first 6 months.
▪ Relationship viewed in social/cognitive terms, not sexual.
▪ Mother’s breast = first part-object → judged good/bad →
shapes perception of whole objects.
▪ Early interactions generalize → foundation of adult
personality.
 Object Relations Theories
Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)
▪ Heinz Kohut (Self Psychology)
▪ Trained as analyst
▪ Developed concept of nuclear self → foundation for
independence.
▪ Nuclear self forms through relationships with self-objects (key
figures, usually mother).
▪ Mother’s role: meet physical & psychological needs; act as
mirror → reflect child’s uniqueness and importance.
▪ Positive mirroring → pride; negative mirroring → shame/guilt.
▪ Adult personality shaped by early self-object relations.
▪ Saw self psychology as extension of Freud, not a break.
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
• At one time was the surrogate son and heir to the
psychoanalytic movement
• In 1914, disintegrated the friendship with Freud
• Analytic psychology
– Jung’s theory of personality
– In opposition to much of Freud’s work
– Jung emphasized development of middle age, introduced
concepts like the collective unconscious and archetypes to
deepen his self-exploration and develop his theories.
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Analytic Psychology
• No place for an Oedipus complex
• Sex played a small role in human motivation
• Role of the libido: a generalized life energy of which sex was
only a part
• Believed we are shaped not only by the past but also by our
goals, hopes, and aspirations
• Personality was not fully determined by experiences during
the first five years of childhood but could be changed
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Two Levels of The Unconscious Mind

• The personal unconscious: the reservoir of material that once

was conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed
• The collective unconscious: the deepest level of the psyche
which contains inherited experiences of human and
prehuman species
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Archetypes
• Inherited tendencies within the collective unconscious that
dispose a person to behave similarly to ancestors who
confronted similar situations
– Persona
• The social mask
– Anima/Animus
• The feminine side of men (anima) and the masculine
side of women (animus),
– Shadow
• The dark, instinctual side of the personality,
– Self
• The central archetype
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Other Contributions
• Introversion and extroversion
– developed a scale for introversion and extroversion and
believed that the opposing attitudes reflected the
direction of the life energy (libido)
• Psychological types
– the functions and attitudes
• Thinking
• Feeling
• Sensing
• Intuiting
 Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Other Contributions
• Jung influenced religion, art, literature; less impact on
scientific psychology.
• Work was hard to understand and ignored by experimental
psychologists.
• Relied on observation, not experiments; many ideas lack
scientific proof.
• Key lasting contributions
– Word-association test (still used).Introversion–extraversion
widely accepted.
– Inspired Myers-Briggs and Eysenck’s personality tests.
• Some concepts (self-actualization, midlife crisis) influenced
humanistic psychology.
• Jungian training and journals still exist globally.
 Social Psychological Theories
The Zeitgeist Strikes Again
• Move away from purely biological framework of physics and
biology
• Emerging fields: anthropology, sociology, and social
psychology
– Supported the proposition that people are products of
social forces and institutions
– Freud’s work in neuroses is not universal
– Much human behavior stems from social conditioning
rather than from actions taken to satisfy biological needs
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Individual psychology
• Adler’s theory of personality that incorporates social
as well as biological factors
– Social interest is an innate potential to cooperate with
other people to achieve personal and societal goals
– Believed we are more strongly affected by our plans for
the future
– Striving for goals or anticipating coming events can
influence present behavior
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Key Differences From Freud Include

• Unity of personality vs. Freud’s division into id, ego, and

superego.
• Striving for superiority (self-fulfillment) as the core
motivation.
• Minimization of sexual factors in personality development.
• Support for gender equality, rejecting Freud’s idea of penis
envy and attributing women’s inferiority feelings to societal
roles, not biology.
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Inferiority complex
• It is condition that develops when a person is unable
to compensate for normal inferiority feelings
– Proposed that a feeling of inferiority is a motivating force
in behavior
– Helplessness and dependence on other people awaken
this sense of inferiority in infancy
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
• Drive for superiority or perfection is universal
– Style of Life
• Unique way each person strives for superiority.
• Formed by age 4–5; hard to change later.
• Shapes how we handle experiences; can be consciously
created.
– Creative Power of the Self
• We actively shape personality and destiny.
• Interpretation of experiences matters more than
heredity/environment.
• Emphasizes personal responsibility and freedom.
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Birth Order
• There is a relationship between birth order and personality
because of how one is treated in relation to others in the
family
• First-born children often feel dethroned by younger siblings
• Second-born children tend to be competitive, ambitious, and
better adjusted
• Youngest children are often spoiled
• Only children may struggle with social adjustment
 Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Birth Order
• Optimistic View
– Adler emphasized conscious self-improvement over Freud’s focus on
sexuality and childhood.
• Criticism
– Seen as too simple and lacking scientific rigor; Freud called it superficial.
• Birth Order
– Research supports some claims (first-born achievement), but others
remain unproven.
• Influence
– Inspired ego psychology, social theories, and Maslow’s humanistic ideas.
• Recognition
– Contributions often overlooked; terms like “inferiority complex”
misattributed.
• Legacy
– Adlerian theory still taught and published worldwide.
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
• Early feminist, trained Freudian psychoanalyst; later broke from
Freud.
– Childhood
• Felt unloved → developed concept of basic anxiety.
– Personal Life
• Lifelong search for love; depression, marital struggles;
turned to self-analysis.
– Career
• M.D. in Berlin; psychoanalytic training; moved to U.S. in
1932.
– Legacy
• Founded American Institute of Psychoanalysis;
emphasized social/cultural factors over biology.
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
Disagreements with Freud

• Rejected Freud’s focus on biology, sexuality, Oedipal theory,

libido, and personality structure; accepted unconscious
motives.
• Introduced womb envy (men’s jealousy of women’s ability to
give birth) as a driver of male dominance behaviors.
• Viewed human nature optimistically: people can grow and
change, unlike Freud’s pessimistic outlook.
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
Basic Anxiety
• Feeling of isolation and helplessness in a hostile world.
• Stems from poor parental care (dominance, lack of love,
inconsistency).
• Social/environmental, not biological; child seeks security, not
sexual gratification.
• Personality shaped by early treatment but can change throughout
life; no universal stages.
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
Neurotic Needs

• Like Freud, believed that personality develops in the early

childhood years
• Horney listed 10 neurotic needs, including affection,
achievement, and self-sufficiency
• Neurotic needs give rise to three personality types:
– The compliant personality
– The detached personality
– The aggressive personality
• Idealized self-image: provides the person with a false picture of
the personality or self
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
The Idealized Self-Image

• A false, unrealistic picture of oneself adopted by neurotic

individuals.
• Acts as a mask to deny inner conflicts and avoid self-
understanding.
• Leads to belief in superiority and prevents acceptance of the real
self.
• Not innate; develops from negative childhood experiences.
• Can be avoided with warmth, security, understanding, and love in
early home life.
 Karen Horney (1885–1952)
The Idealized Self-Image

• Optimism vs. Freud: Horney believed neuroses could be avoided;

Freud was pessimistic.
• Focus: Personality shaped by social forces, not innate biology.
• Evidence: Based on clinical observation; limited research.
• Freud’s Reaction: Dismissive and critical of her rejection of penis
envy.
• Impact: No disciples or journal, but significant influence. Feminist
movement (1960s) revived her work.
• Major Contribution: Feminine psychology—conflict between
love/marriage and career.
• Advocacy: Supported women’s right to make independent
choices; ideas remain relevant.
 The Evolution of Personality Theory
Humanistic Psychology
• Freud’s Role: Founder of psychoanalysis; provided the
foundation for personality theories.
• Alternatives: Jung, social theorists, and neo-Freudians
introduced new ideas during Freud’s lifetime.
• Expansion: Personality psychology grew into many theories
(15–20 commonly discussed today).
• Humanistic Psychology:
– Emerged in the 1960s as a “third force.”
– Sought to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
– Focused on human strengths, positive aspirations, free
will, personal growth, and wholeness of human nature.
 The Evolution of Personality Theory
Antecedent Influences on Humanistic
Psychology
• Early Roots
– Brentano, Külpe, James: Opposed reductionism; emphasized
consciousness and wholeness.
– Gestalt Psychology: Advocated studying experience as a whole;
resisted behaviorism.
• Psychoanalytic Influence
– Adler, Horney: Rejected Freud’s determinism; stressed free will,
creativity, and present/future focus.1960s
• Zeitgeist
– Counterculture ideals: personal fulfillment, human
perfectibility, hedonism, self-disclosure, valuing feelings over
intellect.
 The Evolution of Personality Theory
The Nature of Humanistic Psychology
• Criticism of Behaviorism
– Too mechanistic; reduces humans to S-R units.
• Criticism of Psychoanalysis
– Deterministic; ignores consciousness; focuses only on mental
illness.
• Humanistic Psychology
– Proposed a “third force” highlighting free will, human strengths,
and positive qualities.
• Key Figures
– Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
 Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
• Spiritual father of humanistic psychology; legitimized the
movement.
• Studied healthy, self-actualizing individuals instead of
pathology.
• Personal experiences, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis,
Adler, Horney, Wertheimer, Benedict.
• WWII inspired commitment to human ideals and growth.
• Faced early rejection; later refined theory at Brandeis; APA
president (1967).
• Became a counterculture icon in the 1960s; major figure in
humanistic psychology.
 Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Self-actualization
• Self-actualization = fulfilling one’s
potential and using abilities fully.
• Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological →
Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem →
Self-Actualization.
• Characteristics of Self-Actualizers
• Realistic perception of reality.
• Self-acceptance and autonomy.
• Creativity and empathy.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Resistance to conformity; democratic values.
• Prerequisites: Adequate love and security Needs
in childhood.
• Examples: Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt,
George Washington Carver, Max
Wertheimer.
 Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Person-Centered Therapy
• Based on a singular motivational factor
• Unconditional positive regard: the unconditional love
of a mother for her infant
• Responsibility for improvement on the person or
client rather than on the therapist
• Personality is shaped by the present and how we
consciously perceive it
 Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Qualities of Psychologically Healthy Persons

• An openness to, and a freshness of appreciation of, all

experience
• A tendency to live fully in every moment
• The ability to be guided by their instincts rather than by
reason or the opinions of others
• A sense of freedom in thought and action
• A high degree of creativity
• The continual need to maximize their potential
 The Fate of Humanistic Psychology
• Humanistic psychologists offered a definition of psychology
distinct from the other two forces in the field (behaviorism
and psychoanalysis)
• Separated from mainstream psychology:
– Most humanistic psychologists were in clinical practice and
not at universities
– Timing of the humanist movement was poor
• Strengthened the idea within psychoanalysis that people can
shape their lives
 Positive Psychology
• Recent development from humanist psychology
– 1998: Martin Seligman urged psychology to study positive
traits, not just pathology.
– Promoted “positive psychology,” building on Maslow and
Rogers.
– Goal: Develop an optimistic view of human nature and
potential.
– Sparked major interest and research on happiness and
well-being.2000: American Psychologist published a special
issue; Journal of Happiness Studies launched.
– By 2001: Studies on well-being showed fastest growth in
40 years.
 Positive Psychology
• Focus on happiness, excellence, and optimal human
functioning subjective well-being; the science of happiness,
love and life
– 2002: Seligman published Authentic Happiness, boosting
positive psychology’s popularity.
– Media coverage: Newsweek article; Time magazine special
issue (2005).2006: Journal of Positive Psychology launched;
Harvard’s top course was “Positive Psychology.”
– Within a decade: Hundreds of studies, seminars, and
widespread media praise.
– Textbooks now cover happiness, optimism, hope, peak
performance, and well-being interventions.
 Positive Psychology
• Research on satisfaction, interventions for enhanced well-
being, leisure, peak performance, positive affectivity,
emotional creativity, optimism, hope theory, goal-setting for
life and happiness
– Money and health don’t guarantee lasting happiness;
effects are temporary (hedonic treadmill).Materialism and
high income often increase stress.
– Marriage boosts happiness; age effects are mixed.
– Key traits: high self-esteem, self-acceptance, optimism,
extraversion; low neuroticism.
– Cultural identity and developed nations improve well-
being; looks matter little.
– Happiness usually leads to success, not vice versa.
The Psychoanalytic Tradition in History
• Much diversity within psychoanalysis following its
introduction
– Contemporary positions bear little resemblance to Freud’s
views and can be labeled “psychoanalytic”
– Psychoanalysis was more divided by its revisionist theorists
than was behaviorism
– Many of Freud’s followers agreed that the focus of study
should remain on unconscious biological forces or that
people are motivated by sex and aggression
 Selected Discussion Questions
• How did the changing Zeitgeist in social science influence the later
development of psychoanalysis?
• In what ways did Jung’s life experiences influence his analytical
psychology?
• What lasting contributions to psychology have been made by Jung
and by Adler?
• On what grounds did the humanistic psychologists criticize
behaviorism and psychoanalysis?
• Compare the views of Maslow and Rogers on self-actualization and
the characteristics of the psychologically healthy person.
• For what reasons did humanistic psychology fail to reach its goal of
transforming psychology?
• What factors have been shown to affect subjective well-being?
What factors can you list that influence your own happiness?