Electric Motors- 23EET402

2024-25

Mrs. Vimala C S
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE,
SJBIT
 2
14.08.2023
Semester: IV Course Type: PCC

Course Title: Electric Motors

Course Code: 23EET402 Credits: 3

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P:O) 3:0:0:@ Total Hours: 40

CIE Marks: 50 SEE Marks: 50 Total Marks: 100

SEE Type: Theory Exam Hours: 3 Hours

I. Course Objectives:
 Aims in imparting fundamental knowledge of construction, types of electric motors.
 Operation of AC motors and DC motors required for electrical engineers.
II. Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions):
 Chalk and talk method
 Power point presentation / keynotes
 Videos
 Animations
III. COURSE CONTENT
Module-1: DC Motor and Testing 8 Hrs
DC Motors: Introduction, Classification, Back emf, Principle of operation, Torque equation, Types,
characteristics, Losses, power flow diagram, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency, Speed control
and starters. Numerical.
DC Motor Testing: Swinburne’s Test, Hopkinson’s Test, Field Test and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Sections 8.1-8.4, 8.7, 8.10, 8.12 to 8.15, 8.17 to 8.21, 8.25, 9.1 to 9.5, 10.1 to 10.5, 10.7, 10.8, 10.10.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning)
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Lenz’s Law.
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-2: Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs
Three Phase Induction Motor: Types, Construction, Working Principle, Applications, Slip, significance
of slip, Torque equation, Maximum torque, Torque-slip and torque-speed curves, torque-slip characteristic
covering motoring, generating and braking regions of operation, Losses, efficiency and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Section Part III: Section 7.1 to 7.11, 7.18 to 7.23.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis, Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-3: Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor: No-load and blocked rotor tests, Performance
Analysis of induction motor-Equivalent Circuit & Circle Diagram, Induction motor working as induction
generator, Cogging and crawling. High torque rotors-double cage and deep rotor bars.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section7.26 to 7.29,7.31 to 7.32, 7.35, 7.40, 9.1

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Pre-requisites (Self Learning):

Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis.

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

Module-4: Starting and Speed Control of 3ϕ & 1ϕ Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Starting Methods and Speed Control of 3 phase Induction motor:

Need for starter. Direct online, Star-Delta, and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting. Speed
control by voltage, frequency, and rotor resistance methods.
Single Phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory, Types, Construction, Working principle,
Applications, AC Series Motor.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section: 8.1 to 8.3.
Electric Machines, Ashfaq Husain: Chapter 8: Section 8.1 to 8.4, 8.7,8.10 to 8.18
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Induction Motor working
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-5: Special Machines and applications. 8 Hrs

Synchronous Motor: Working Principles, Starting Methods, Applications, Voltage and Power Factor
control, V and inverted V curves, PMSM
Special Machines: Linear Induction Motor, AC and DC Servo Motor, Brushless DC motor, Stepper
motors, SRM.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section 5.1, 5.2,5.5,5.13,5.19,5.20,5.25, 9.3, 10.23.3 Part I: Section 11.12
Electrical Machines, Ashfaq Husain: chapter 9: section 9.1-9.2, 9.4-9.9
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

IV. COURSE OUTCOMES

On the successful completion of the course, students will be able to
Explain the construction, principle of operation of various types of AC motors, DC motors and
CO1 special purpose motors.
CO2 Analyze the characteristics and performance of DC machines at loaded conditions.
CO3 Explain the starting methods, speed control, and testing of AC &DC Motors

CO4 Determine the performance of AC Motors using different tests

V. CO-PO-PSO MAPPING (mark H=3; M=2; L=1)

PO/PSO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 S1 S2 S3 S4
CO1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
VI. Assessment Details (CIE & SEE)
General Rules: Refer Annexure Section 1

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Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE): Refer Annexure Section 1

Semester End Examination (SEE): Refer Annexure Section 1
VII. Learning Resources
VII(a): Textbooks:
Sl. Name of the
Title of the Book Name of the author Edition and Year
No. publisher
Theory of
Performances of Kataria & Sons
1 Gupta.J.B 14thEdition, 2013
Electrical
Machines’
Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2 Electric Machines Ashfaq Husain 2nd Edition 2008
VII(b): Reference Books:

A Textbook of
S Chand and
1 Electrical [Link] Reprint Edition 2014
Company
Technology
Basic Electrical McGraw-Hill
2 Engineering D.P. Kothari 4th Edition,2019
Education
VII(c): Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
Mention the links of the online resources, video materials, etc.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
VIII: Activity Based Learning / Practical Based Learning/Experiential learning:
Activities like seminar, assignments, quiz, case studies, mini projects, industry visit, self-study activities,
group discussions, etc

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Module-2
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Introduction:
An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy. The motors operating
on a.c. supply are called a.c. motor. As a.c. supply is commonly available, the a.c. motors are very popularly used
in practice. The a.c. motors are classified as three phase induction motors, single phase induction motor, universal
motors, synchronous motors etc. The three phase induction motors are widely used for various industrial
application. The important features of three phase induction motors are self starting, higher power factor, good
speed regulation and robust construction. This chapter explains the construction, working principle and
characteristics of three phase induction motors as well as universal motors. The working of three phase induction
motors is based on the principle of rotating magnetic field. Let us discuss, the production of rotating magnetic
field.
Construction of Three Phase Induction motor:
Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely
1. The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator.
2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor. Hence rotor develops a
driving torque and rotates.
Stator
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
The stampings are slotted in its periphery to carry the stator winding. The stampings are insulated from
each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses to a minimum value. The number of
stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The built up core is then fitted in a casted or
fabricated steel frame. The choice of material for the stampings is generally silicon steel, which
minimizes the hysteresis loss. The slots in the periphery of the stator core carries a three phase winding,
connected either in star or delta. This three phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for
definite number of poles. This winding when excited by a three phase supply produces a magnetic
rotating field as discussed earlier. The choice of number of poles depends on the speed of the rotating
magnetic field required. The radial ducts are provided for the cooling purpose. In some cases, all the
six terminals of three phase stator winding are brought out which gives flexibility to the user to connect
them either in star or delta. The Fig. 1 shows a stator lamination.

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Fig. 1 Stator lamination

Rotor
The rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotor core is also laminated in construction and uses cast iron.
It is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or winding is placed in the rotor slots.
The two typed of rotor constructions which are used for induction motors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor and

2. Slip ring wound rotor

Squirrel Cage Rotor

The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of uninsulated copper or
aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the slots. These bars are permanently
shorted at each end with the help of conducting copper ring called end ring. The bars are usually brazed
to the end rings to provide good mechanical strength. The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a
closed electrical circuit. So the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1

Fig. 1 Squirrel cage rotor

As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor resistance is very
very small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor itself is short circuited, no
external resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance. Hence no external resistance can be

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introduced in the rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush assembly is not required for this rotor. Hence the
construction of this rotor is very simple.
Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air through the machine
while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform
and as small as possible. In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but are
skewed as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Skewing in rotor construction

The advantages of skewing are,

1. A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes the motor
operation quite.

2. It makes the rotor operation smooth.

3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of magnetic
locking gets reduced due to skewing.

4. It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.

Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor

In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor carries a three
phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number of poles as that of stator.
The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain the rotor winding. The three ends
of three phase winding, available after connecting the winding in star or delta, are permanently
connected to the slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the same shaft. We have seen that slip rings
are used to connect external stationary circuit to the internal rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor,
the external resistances can be added with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series with
each phase of the rotor winding. This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 Slip rings or wound rotor

Key point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase can be controlled. This helps us to control
some of the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc.
In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal collar which
gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same time brushes are also
lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due to friction. The possibility of
addition of an external resistance in series with the rotor, with the help of slip sings is the main feature
of this type of rotor.

Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor

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Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly:

Whenever there is a need of connecting the rotating member of the machine to the stationary external
circuit, then slip rings and brush assembly is used.
Consider a three phase rotating star connected winding as shown in the Fig. 1. It is required to connect
external three stationary star connected resistances to this windings. The winding must keep on
rotating and external resistance must remain stationary and still there should be contact between the
two. This is possible by slip rings and brushes.

Fig. 1 Concept of slip rings and brush

The three rings made up of conducting material called slip rings are mounted on the same shaft with
which winding is rotating. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip ring,
permanently. Thus three ends R-Y-B of winding are available at the three rotating slip rings. The three
brushes are then used. Each brush is resting on the corresponding slip ring, making contact with the
slip ring but the brushes are stationary. So rotating three ends R-Y-B are now available at the brushes
which are stationary as shown in the Fig. 1. Now stationary external circuit can be connected to the
brushes which are nothing but the three ends of the winding.
Thus the external stationary circuit can be connected to the rotating internal part of the machine with
the help of slip rings and brush assembly. Not only the external circuit can be connected but the
voltage also can be injected to the rotating winding, by connecting stationary supply to the brushes
externally. Key point : Such slip rings and brush assembly plays an important role in the
working of slip ring induction motor.

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Slip of Induction Motor:

We have seen that rotor rotates in the same direction as that of R.M.F. but in steady state attains a
speed less than the synchronous speed. The difference between the two speeds i.e. synchronous speed
of R.M.F. ( Ns ) and rotor speed (N) is called slip speed. This slip speed is generally expressed as the
percentage of the synchronous speed.
So slip of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and
actual speed of rotor i.e. motor (N) expressed as a friction of the synchronous speed(Ns). This is also
called absolute slip or fractional slip and is denoted as 's'.
Thus

The percentage slip is expressed as,

In terms of slip, the actual speed of motor (N) can be expressed as,

At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.

This is maximum value of slip s possible for induction motor which occurs at start. While s = 0 given
us N = Ns which is not possible for an induction motor. So slip of induction motor cannot be zero under
any circumstances.
Practically motor operates in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05 i.e. 1% to 5%. The slip corresponding to full
load speed of the motor is called full load slip.
Example 1 : A 4 pole, 3 phase induction motor is supplied from Hz supply. Determine its synchronous
speed. On full load, its speed is observed to be 1410 r.p.m. calculate its full load slip.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz , N = 1410 r.p.m. Ns = 120f / P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
Full load absolute slip is given by,
s = ( Ns - N)/ V2 = (1500-1410 )/ 1500 = 0.06
... %s = 0.06 x 100 = 6 %
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Example 2 : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has a full load slip of 4 %.
Calculate full load speed of the motor.
Solution : Given values are, P = 4, f = 50 Hz, % sfl = 4%
sfl = Full load absolute slip = 0.04
Ns = 120f / P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
sfl = (Ns - Nfl ) / Ns = where = full load speed of motor
... 0.04 = (1500 - Nfl )/ 1500
... Nfl = 1440 r.p.m.

Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters

In case of a transformer, frequency of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary is same as the voltage applied
to primary. Now in case of induction motor at start N = 0 and slip s = 1. Under this condition as long
as s = 1, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is same as the voltage applied to the stator. But as
motor gathers speed, induction motor has some slip corresponding to speed N. In such case, the
frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is no longer same as that of stator voltage. Slip affects the frequency
of rotor induced e.m.f. Due to this some other rotor parameters also get affected. Let us study the effect
of slip on the following rotor parameters.
1. Rotor frequency 2. Magnitude of rotor induced e.m.f. 3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor and 5. Rotor current
1. Effect on rotor frequency
In case of induction motor, the speed of rotating magnetic
field is, Ns = (120 f )/P............................ (1)
Where f = Frequency of supply in Hz
At start when N = 0, s = 1 and stationary rotor has maximum relative motion with respect to R.M.F.
Hence maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor at start. The frequency of this induced e.m.f. at start is
same as that of supply frequency.
As motor actually rotates with speed N, the relative speed of rotor with respect R.M.F. decreases and
becomes equal to slip speed of Ns - N. The induced e.m.f. in rotor depends on rate of cutting flux i.e.
relative speed Ns - N. Hence in running condition magnitude of induced e.m.f. decreases so as to its
frequency. The rotor is wound for same number of poles as that of stator i.e. P.
If fr is the frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition at slip speed Ns - N then there exists
a fixed relation between (Ns - N), fr and P similar to equation (1). So we can write for rotor in running
condition,

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(Ns - N) = (120 fr)/P , rotor poles = stator poles = P ................ (2)

Dividing (2) by (1) we get,
(Ns - N)/Ns = (120 fr / P)/(120 f / P) but (Ns - N)/Ns = slip s s = fr/f fr = s f
Thus frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition (fr) is slip times the supply frequency (f).
At start we have s = 1 hence rotor frequency is same as supply frequency. As slip of the induction
motor is in the range 0.01 to 0.05, rotor frequency is very small in the running condition.
Example : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1470 r.p.m. speed. Find
the frequency of the induced e.m.f in the rotor under this condition.
Solution : The given values are, P = 4, f = 50 Hz, N = 1470 r.p.m.
Ns = (120 f )/ P = (120 x 50)/4 = 1500 r.p.m. s = (Ns - N)/Ns = (1500-1470)/1500 = 0.02
fr = s f = 0.02 x 50 = 1 Hz
It can be seen that in running condition, frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. is very small.
2. Effect of Slip on Magnitude of Rotor Induced E.M.F
We have seen that when rotor is standstill, s = 1, relative speed is maximum and maximum
e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be,
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill condition
As rotor gains speed, the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field decreases and hence
induced e.m.f. in rotor also decreases as it is proportional to the relative speed Ns - N. Let this e.m.f.
be, E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in running condition Now E2r α Ns while E2r α Ns - N
Dividing the two proportionality equations, E2r/E2= ( Ns - N)/Ns but (Ns - N)/N = slip s E2r/E2 = s
E2r = s E2
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f in the rotor also reduces by slip times the magnitude of
induced
e.m.f. at standstill condition.
3. Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance
The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance. In case of squirrel cage rotor, the rotor
resistance is very very small and generally neglected but slip ring rotor has its own resistance which can
be controlled by adding external resistance through slip rings. In general let,
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase on standstill X2 = Rotor reactance per phase on standstill
Now at standstill, fr = f hence if L2 is the inductance of rotor per phase, X2 = 2πfr L2 = 2πf L2 Ω/ph
While R2 = Rotor resistance in Ω/ph Now in running condition, fr = s f hence,
X2r = 2πfr L2 = 2πfs L2 = s .(2πf L2)

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X2r = s X2
where X2r = Rotor reactance in running condition
Thus resistance as independent of frequency remains same at standstill and in running condition. While
the rotor reactance decreases by slip times the rotor reactance at standstill.
Hence we can write rotor impedance per phase as : Z2 = Rotor impedance on standstill (N = 0)
condition
= R2 + j X2 Ω/ph
Z2 = √( R22+ X2)2) Ω/ph ....... magnitude
While Z2r = Rotor impedance in running condition
= R2 + j X2r = R2 + j (s X2) Ω/ph
Z2r = √(R22+ (s X2)2) Ω/ph ... magnitude

4. Effect on Rotor Power Factor

From rotor impedance, we can write the expression for the power factor of rotor at standstill and also
in running condition.
The impedance triangle on standstill condition is shown in the Fig1. From it we can write, cos Φ2
= Rotor power factor on standstill = R2/Z2 =R2/√(R22+ X22)
The impedance in running condition becomes Z2r and the corresponding impedance triangle is shown
in the Fig.2. From Fig. 2 we can write,
cos Φ2r = Rotor power factor in running condition = R2/Z2r = R2/√(R22+ (s X2)2)
Key point : As rotor winding is inductive, the rotor p.f. is always lagging in nature.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

5. Effect on Rotor Current

Let I2 = Rotor current per phase on standstill condition
The magnitude of I2 depends on magnitude of E2 and impedance Z2 per
phase. I2 = (E2 per phase)/(Z2 per phase) A Substituting expression of Z2 we
get,
I2 = E2 /√(R 2+ X22) A
The equivalent rotor circuit on standstill is shown in the Fig.3. The Φ2 is the angle between E2 and I2
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which determines rotor p.f. on standstill.

Fig. 3
In the running condition, Z2 changes to Z2r while the induced e.m.f. changes to E2r. Hence the
magnitude of current in the running condition is also different than on standstill. The equivalent circuit
on running condition is shown in the Fig. 4.
I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition
The value of slip depends on speed which inturn depends on load on motor hence X2r is shown variable
in the equivalent circuit. From the equivalent we can write,
I2r = E2r/Z2r = (s E2)/√(R 2+ (s X2)2)
Φ2r is the angle between E2r and I2r which decides p.f. in running condition.

Fig. 4

Key point : Putting s = 1 in the expression obtained in running condition, the values at standstill can be
obtained.

Induction Motor as a Transformer

We know that, transformer is a device in which two windings are magnetically coupled and when one
winding is excited by a.c. supply of certain frequency, the e.m.f. gets induced in the second winding
having same frequency as that of supply given to the first winding. The winding to which supply is given
is called primary winding while winding in which e.m.f. gets induced is called secondary winding. The
induction motor can be regarded as the transformer.
The difference is that the normal transformer is an alternating flux transformer while induction motor is
rotating flux transformer. The normal transformer has no air gap as against this an induction motor has
distinct air gap between its stator and rotor.
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In an alternating flux transformer the frequency of induced e.m.f. and current in primary and secondary
is always same. However in the induction motor frequency of e.m.f. and current on the stator side
remains same but frequency of rotor e.m.f. and current depends on the slip and slip depends on load on
the motor. So we have a variable frequency on the rotor side. But it is important to remember that at start
when N = 0 the value of slip is unity (s = 1), then frequency of supply to the stator and of induced
e.m.f. in the rotor is same. The effect of slip on the rotor parameters is already discussed in the previous
section. And last difference is that in case of the alternating flux transformer the entire energy present
in the secondary circuit, is in the electrical form. As against this, in an induction motor part of its energy
in the rotor circuit is in electrical form and the remaining part is converted into mechanical form.

Fig. 1 Induction motor as a transformer

In general, an induction motor can be treated as a generalized transformer as shown in the Fig. 1. In
this, the slip ring induction motor with star connected stator and rotor is shown.
So if E1 = Stator e.m.f. per phase in volts.
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in volts at start when motor is at standstill.
Then according to general transformer there exists a fixed relation between E1and E2 called
transformer ratio.
... At start when N =0 , s =1 and we get,

Key Point : So if stator supply voltage is known and ratio of stator to rotor turns per phase is known
then the rotor induced e.m.f. on standstill can be obtained.
Torque Equation
The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factors :
1. The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to produce
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induced
e.m.f. in rotor.

2. The magnitude of rotor current in running condition.

3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition. Mathematically the relationship
cab be expressed as,
T α Φ I2r cos Φ2r ............................................................. (1)
where Φ = Flux responsible to produce induced e.m.f.
I2r = Rotor running condition cos Φ2r = Running p.f. of motor
The flux Φ produced by stator is proportional to i.e. stator voltage.
Φ α E1 .................................................................... (2)
while E1 and E2 are related to each other through ratio of stator turns to rotor turns i.e.
k. E2/E1 = K ........................................... (3)
Using (3) in (2) we can write,
Thus in equation (1), Φ can be replaced by E2.
While I2r = E2r /Z2r = (s E2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2). .................... (5)
and cos Φ2r = R2/Z2r = R2/√(R 2 +(s X2)2) .................. (6)
Using (4), (5), (6) in equation (1),

T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2). .......................... (7)

where k = Constant of proportionality
The constant k is provided to be 3/2 for three phase induction
motor. k =3/(2 π ns) .................................... (8)
Key Point : ns = synchronous speed in r.p.s. = Ns/60
Using (8) in (7) we get the torque equation as,

So torque developed at any load condition can be obtained if slip at that load is known and all standstill
rotor parameters are known.

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Starting Torque
Starting torque is nothing but the torque produced by an induction motor as start. At start, N= 0 and
slip s = 1. So putting s = 1 in the torque equation we can write expression for the starting torque Tst as,

Key Point : From the equation (10), it is clear that by changing the starting torque can be controlled.
The change in R2 at start is possible in case of slip ring induction motor only. This is the principle used
in case of slip induction motor to control the starting torque Tst.
Example 1 : A 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has star connected stator winding.
The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 Ω and 1 Ω respectively. The full load speed is 1440
r.p.m. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor. Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2 :1.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.1 Ω, X2 = 1 Ω, N = 1440 r.p.m.
Stator turns/Rotor turns = 2/1
K = E2 /E1 = Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 = 0.5 Ns=120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
E1line = 400 V………………Stator line voltage given
E1ph = E1line /√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V But E2ph /E1ph = 0.5 = K

E2ph= 0.5 x 230.94 = 115.47 V

Full load slip, s = (Ns-N)/Ns = (1500-1400)/1500 = 0.04 ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.

= 87.81 N-m

Condition of Maximum Torque:

From the torque equation, it is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is running. The supply
voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed ratio between E1 and E2.
Hence E2 is also constant. Similarly R2, X2 and ns are constants for the induction motor.
Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque, remember that the only parameter which
controls the torque is slip s.
Mathematically for the maximum torque we can write,
dT/ds = 0 where T = (k s E22 R2)/(R 2 +(s X2)2)

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While carrying out differential remember that E2, R2, X2 and k are constants. The only variable is
slip s. As load on motor changes, its speed changes and hence slip changes. This slip decides the
torque produced corresponding to the load demand.
T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 + s2 X 2) Writing (s X2)2 = s2 X22
As both numerator and denominator contains s terms, differential T with respect to s using the rule of
differentiation for u/v.

k s E 2 R (2s X 2) - (R 2 + s2 X 2)(k E
2 R ) = 0 2 s2 k X 2 E 2 R - R 2 k E 2
R - k s2 X 2 E 2 R = 0
k s2 X 2 E 2 R - R 2 k X 2 R = 0
s2 X 2 - R 2 = 0 Taking k E 2 R
common. s2 = R22/X 2
s = R2/X2 Neglecting negative slip
This is the slip at which the torque is maximum and is denoted as sm.
... sm= R2/X2
It is the ratio of standstill per values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when the torque produced
by the induction motor is at its maximum.
Magnitude of Maximum Torque
This can be obtained by substituting sm = R2/X2 in the torque equation. It is denoted by
Tm. Tm = (k sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sm X2)2)

From the expression of Tm, it can be observed that

1. It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.

2. It is directly proportional to the square of the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill.

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3. The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on the rotor resistance
R2. But the slip at which it occurs i.e. speed at which it occurs depends on the value of rotor resistance
R2.
Example 1 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected induction motor has a rotor resistance and
reactance per phase equal to 0.01 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. Determine i) Starting torque ii) slip at which
maximum torque will occur iii) speed at which maximum torque will occur iv) maximum torque v) full
load torque if full load slip is 4 %. Assume ratio of stator to rotor turns as 4.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, stator turns/ rotor turns = 4, R2 = 0.01 Ω, X2 = 0.1 Ω E1line = stator line voltage = 400
V E1ph = E1line/√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V................ star connection
K = E2ph/E1ph = Rotor turns/ Stator turns = 1/4
... E2 = (1/4) x E1ph = 230.94/4 = 57.735 V Ns = 120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
i) At start, s =1
Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R 2 +( X2)2) where k = 3/(2 π ns) ns = Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
k = 3/(2π x 25) = 0.01909
Tst = ( 0.01909 x 57.7352 x 0.01 )/( 0.012 + 0.12 ) = 63.031 N-m
ii) Slip at which maximum torque occurs is,
sm = R2/X2 = 0.01/0.1 = 0.1
%sm = 0.1 x 100 = 10%
iii)Speed at which maximum torque occurs is speed corresponding to, N = Ns (1 - sm ) = 1500 (1 - 0.1)
= 1350 r.p.m.
iv) The maximum torque is,
Tm = (k E22)/(2 X2) = (0.01909 x 57.7352)/(2 x 0.1) = 318.16 N-m
v) Full load slip, sf = 0.04 as % sf = 4 %
... Tf.l. = (k sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2) = (0.01909 x 0.04 x 57.7352 x 0.01)/( 0.012 + (0.04 x 0.1)2)
= 219.52 N-m
Torque-Slip Characteristics
As the induction motor is located from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip increases. Due
to the increased load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load demand. The torque ultimately
depends on slip as explained earlier. The behaviour of motor can be easily judged by sketching a curve
obtained by plotting torque produced against slip of induction motor. The curve obtained by plotting
torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s = 0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics

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of the induction motor. It is very interesting to study the nature of torque-slip characteristics.
We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So we can write torque equations
as,

Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s = 0 to s = 1) into
two parts and analyze them independently.
i) Low slip region :
In low slip region, 's' is very very small. Due to this, the term (s X2)2 is so small as compared to R 2 that
it can be neglected.

Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed decreases,
increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies the load demand.
Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to achieve
the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low slip values.
ii) High slip region :
In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be assumed that the term R22 is
very very small as compared to (s X2)2. Hence neglecting from the denominator, we get

So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its nature is like rectangular
hyperbola.
Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decreases, slip
increases. In high slip region as T α1/s, torque decreases as slip increases.
But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases, due to extra loading effect,
speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque decreases as T α1/s hence same load
acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor
comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region.
Hence this region is called unstable region of operation.

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So torque - slip characteristics has two parts,

1. Straight line called stable region of operation

2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.

Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque - slip characteristics represents stable
operation ?
In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly. Every motor has
its own limit to produce a torque. The maximum torque, the motor can produces as load increases is Tm
which occurs at s = sm. So linear behaviour continues till s = sm.
If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high slip region.
Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a load. Hence
i.e. maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown torque or pull out torque.
So range s = 0 to s = sm is called low slip region, known as stable region of operation. Motor always
operates at a point in this region. And range s = sm to s = 1 is called high slip region which is rectangular
hyperbola, called unstable region of operation. Motor can not continue to rotate at any point in this
region.
At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start, motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as Tst. The entire torque
- slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Torque speed characteristics Full load torque

When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases and slip
increases. The increases torque demand is satisfied by drawing motor current from the supply.
The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such load, the current
drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor. When current increases, due to
heat produced the temperature rises. The safe limit of current is that which when drawn for continuous
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operation of motor, produces a temperature rise well within the limits. Such a full load point is shown
on the torque-slip characteristics torque as TF.L.
The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till maximum torque
condition. But due to high current and hence high temperature rise there is possibility of damage of
winding insulation, if motor is operated for longer time duration in this region i.e. from point C to B.
But motor can be used to drive loads more than full load, producing torque upto maximum torque for
short duration of time. Generally full load torque is less than the maximum torque.
So region OC upto full load condition allows motor operation continuously and safely from the
temperature point pf view. While region CB is possible to achieve in practice but only for short duration
of time and not for continuous operation of motor. This is the difference between full load torque and
the maximum or breakdown torque. The breakdown torque is also called stalling torque.

Generating and Braking Region:

When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 ≤s ≤1, the machine runs as a motor which is the
normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of rotating field which is developed by stator
currents. In this region it takes electrical power from supply lines and supplies mechanical power
output. The rotor speed and corresponding torque are in same direction.
When the slip is greater than 1, the machine works in the braking mode. The motor is rotated in opposite
direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator terminals are interchanged which changes
the phase sequence which in turn reverses the direction of rotation of magnetic field. The motor comes
to quick stop under the influence of counter torque which produces braking action. This method by
which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging. Only care is taken that the stator must be
disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor to rotate in other direction
To run the induction machine as a generator, its slip must be less than zero i.e. negative. The negative
slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed above the synchronous speed. When running as a
generator it takes mechanical energy and supplies electrical energy from the stator.
Thus the negative slip, generation action takes place and nature of torque - slip characteristics reverses
in this generating region.

The Fig.2 shows the complete torque - slip characteristics showing motoring, generating and
the braking region.

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Fig. 2 Regions of torque - slip characteristics

Torque Ratios
The performance of the motor is sometimes expressed in terms of comparison of various torques such
as full load torque, starting torque and maximum torque. The comparison is obtained by finding out
ratios of these torques.
Full load and Maximum Torque Ratio In general, Tá (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2) Let sf = Full load slip
... TF.L. á (sf E 2 R2)/(R 2 +(sf X2)2)
and sm = Slip for maximum torque Tm
... Tm á (sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2)

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,

But R2/X2 = sm
TF.L./Tm = (sf x 2 s 2)/(sm x (s 2+ s 2)) TF.L./Tm = (2 sf sm)/(s 2 + s 2)

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Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio:

Against starting with torque equation as, T α (s E22 R2)/(R 2 +(s X2)2)
Now for Tst, s =1
Tst α (E22 R2)/(R 2 +( X2)2)
While for Tm, s = sm

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,

Substituting R2/X2 = sm

Infact using the same method, ratio of any two torques at two different slip values can be obtained.
Sometimes using the relation, R2 = a X2 the torque ratios are expressed interms of constant a as,
TF.L./Tm = (a sf )/(a2+ sf 2)
and Tst/Tm = 2 a/ (1 +
a2) where a = R2/X2
= sm
Example 1 : A 24 pole, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.016 Ω per phase
and rotor reactance of 0.265 Ω per phase at standstill. It is achieving its full load torque at a speed of
247 r.p.m. Calculate the ratio of
i) Full load torque to maximum torque ii) starting torque to maximum torque
Solution : Given values are,
P = 24, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.016 Ω, X2 = 0.265 Ω, N = 247
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r.p.m. Ns = 120f / P = (120x50)/24 = 250 r.p.m.

sf = (Ns - N)/Ns = (250-247)/250 = 0.012 = Full load slip sm = R2/X2 = 0.016/0.265 = 0.06037
i) TF.L./Tm = (2 sm sf )/(s 2+ s 2) = (2 x 0.06037 x 0.012)/(0.060372 + 0.0122)
ii) Tst/Tm = (2 sm )/(1 + sm2) = (2 x 0.06037)/(1 + 0.060372) = 0.1203

Speed Torque Characteristics:

Uptill now, we have seen torque - slip characteristics of an induction motor. To compare the
performance of induction motor with d.c. shunt and series motors, it is possible to plot speed- torque
curve of an induction motor.
At N = Ts, the motor stops as it cannot produce any torque, as induction motor cannot rotate at
synchronous motor.
At N = 0, the starting condition, motor produces a torque called starting torque.

Fig. 1 Speed Torque characteristics

For low slip region, i.e. speed near the region is stable and the characteristics is straight in nature. Fall
in speed from no load to full load is about 4 to 6 %. The characteristics is shown in the Fig.1. It can be
seen from that the figure that for the stable region of operation, the characteristics is similar to that of
d.c. shunt motor. Due to this, three phase induction motor is practically said to be 'constant speed' motor
as drop in speed from no load to full load is not significant. The unstable region of operation is shown
dotted in the Fig.1.

Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque:

It is shown that in slip ring induction motor, externally resistance can be added in the rotor. Let us see
the effect of change in rotor resistance on the torque produced.

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Let R2 = Rotor resistance per phase Corresponding torque, T α (s E22 R2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
Now externally resistance is added in each phase of rotor through slip rings. Let R2' = New rotor
resistance per phase
Corresponding torque T' α (s E22 R2' )/√(R2'2 +(s X2)2)
Similarly the starting torque at s = 1 for R2 and R2' can be written as Tst α (E22 R2 )/√(R22 +(X2)2)
and T'st α (E22 R'2 )/√(R'22 +(X2)2)
Maximum torque Tm α (E22)/(2X2)
Key Point : It can be observed that Tm is independent of R2 hence whatever may be the rotor resistance,
maximum torque produced never change but the slip and speed at which it occurs depends on R2.
For R2, sm = R2/X2 where Tm occurs
For R2', sm' = R2'/X2' where same Tm Occurs

R2' > R2, the slip sm' > sm. Due to this, we get a new torque-slip characteristics for rotor resistance .
This new characteristics is parallel to the characteristics for with same but Tm occurring at sm'. The
effect of change in rotor resistance on torque-slip characteristics shown in the Fig. 1.
It can be seen that the starting torque T'st for R2' is more than Tst for R2. Thus by changing rotor
resistance the starting torque can be controlled.
If now resistance is further added to rotor to get resistance as R2' and so on, it can be seen that Tm
remains same but slip at which it occurs increases to sm' and so on. Similarly starting torque also
increases to T'st and so on.

Fig. 1 Effect of rotor resistance on torque-slip curves

If maximum torque Tm is required at start then sm = 1 as at start slip is always unity, so
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sm = R2/X2 = 1 , R2 = X2 Condition for getting Tst = Tm

Key Point : Thus by adding external resistance to rotor till it becomes equal to X2, the maximum torque
can be achieved at start.
It is represented by point A in the Fig. [Link] such high resistance is kept permanently in the circuit, there
will be large copper losses (I2 R) and hence efficiency of the motor will be very poor. Hence such added
resistance is cut-off gradually and finally removed from the rotor circuit, in the normal running condition
of the motor. So this method is used in practice to achieve higher
starting torque hence resistance in rotor is added only at start. Thus good performance at start and in the
running condition is ensured.
Key Point : This is possible only in case of slip type of induction motor as in squirrel cage due to short
circuited rotor, extra rotor resistance cannot be added.

Example : Rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase of a 3 phase induction motor are
0.04 Ω and 0.2 Ω respectively. What should be the external resistance required at start in rotor circuit to
obtain. i) maximum torque at start ii) 50% of maximum torque at start.
Solution :
R2 = 0.04 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω
i) For Tm = Tst , sm = R2'/X2 = 1
R2' = X2 = 0.2
Let Rex = external resistance required in rotor. R2' = R2 + Rex
Rex = R2' - R2 = 0.2 - 0.04 = 0.16 Ω per phase
ii) For Tst = 0.5 Tm,
Now Tm= (k E22)/(2 X2) and Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 + X22)
But at start, external resistance Rex is added. So new value of rotor resistance is say R2'. R2' = R2 + Rex
Tst = (k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) with added resistance but Tst = 0.5Tm required.
Substituting expressions of Tst and Tm, we get (k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) = 0.5 (k E22)/ (2X2)
4 R2' X2= (R2'2 + X22)
(R2'2) - 4 x 0.2 x R2' + 0.22 = 0
(R2'2) - 0.8 R2' + 0.04 = 0
R2' = {0.8 + √(0.82 - 4 x 0.04)}/2
R2' = 0.0535 , 0.7464 Ω
But R2' can not greater than X2 hence, R2' = 0.0535 = R2 + Rex
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0.0535 = 0.04 + Rex

Rex = 0.0135 Ω per phase
This is much resistance is required in the rotor externally to obtain Tst = 0.5 Tm.

Losses in Induction Motor:

The various power losses in an induction motor can be classified as,
1. Constant losses
2. Variable losses

i) Constant losses :
These can be further classified as core losses and mechanical losses.
Core losses occur in stator core and rotor core. These are also called iron losses. These losses include
eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The eddy current losses are minimizsed by using laminated
construction while hysteresis losses are minimized by selecting high grade silicon steel as the material
for stator and rotor.
The iron losses depends on the frequency. The stator frequency is always supply frequency hence stator
iron losses are dominate. As against this in rotor circuit, the frequency is very small which is slip times
the supply frequency. Hence rotor iron losses are very small and hence generally neglected, in the running
condition.
The mechanical losses include frictional losses at the bearings and windings losses. The friction changes
with speed but practically the drop in speed is very small hence these losses are assumed to be the part
of constant losses.

ii) Variable losses :

This include the copper losses in stator and rotor winding due to current flowing in the winding. As
current changes as load changes as load changes, these losses are said to be variable losses.
Generally stator iron losses are combined with stator copper losses at a particular load to specify total
stator losses at particular load condition.
Rotor copper loss = 3 I2r 2 R2………. Analysed separately
where I2r = Rotor current per phase at a particular load R2 = Rotor resistance per phase

Power Flow in an Induction Motor

Induction motor converts an electrical power supplies to it into mechanical power. The various stages in
this conversion is called power flow in an inductor motor.
The three phase supply given to the stator is the net electrical input to the motor. If motor power factor
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is cos Φ and VL, IL are line values of supply voltage and current drawn, then net electrical supplied to
the motor can be calculated as,

This is nothing but the stator input.

The part of this power is utilized to supply the losses in the stator which are stator core as well as
copper losses.
The remaining power is delivered to the rotor magnetically through the air gap with the help of rotating
magnetic field. This is called rotor input denoted as P2.

rotor is not able to convert its entire input to the mechanical as it has to supply rotor losses. The rotor
losses are dominantly copper losses as rotor iron losses are very small and hence generally neglected. So
rotor losses are rotor copper losses denoted as Pc.

where I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition R2 = Rotor resistance per phase.
After supplying these losses, the remaining part of P2 is converted into mechanical which is called gross
mechanical power developed by the motor denoted as P m.

Now this power, motor tries to deliver to the load connected to the shaft. But during this mechanical
transmission, part of Pm is utilized to provide mechanical losses like friction and windage.
And finally the power is available to the load at the shaft. This is called net output of the motor denoted
as Pout. This is also called shaft power.

The rating of the motor is specified in terms of value of Pout when load condition is full load condition.
The above stages can be shown diagrammatically called power flow diagram of an induction motor.

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This is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Power flow diagram

From the power flow diagram we can define,

= Pm / P2

Relation between P2, Pc, and Pm:

The rotor input P2, rotor copper loss Pc and gross mechanical power developed Pm are related through
the slip s. Let us derive this relationship.
Let T = Gross torque developed by motor in N-m.
We know that the torque and power are related by the relation,
P=Txω
where P = Power
and ω = angular speed

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= (2πN)/60 , N = speed in r.p.m.

Now input to the rotor P2 is from stator side through rotating magnetic field which is rotating at
synchronous speed Ns.
So torque developed by the rotor can be expressed interms of power input and angular speed at which
power is inputted i.e. ωs as,
P2 = T x ωs where ωs = (2πNs)/60 rad/sec
P2 = T x (2πNs)/60 where Ns is in r.p.m ............ (1)
The rotor tries to deliver this torque to the load. So rotor output is gross mechanical power developed
Pm and torque T. But rotor gives output at speed N and not Ns. So from output side P m and T can be
related through angular speed ω and not ωs.
Pm= T x ω where ω = (2πN)/60 . (2)
Pm = T x (2πN)/60
The difference between P2 and Pm is rotor copper loss Pc.
Pc = P2 - Pm = T x (2πNs/60) - T x (2πN/60)
Pc = T x (2π/60)(Ns - N) = rotor copper loss ...........................(3)
Dividing (3) by (1),
2𝜋(𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁)
𝑃𝑐 𝑇 60 (𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁)
= =
𝑃2 2𝜋 𝑁𝑠
𝑇 60 𝑁𝑠
𝑃𝑐
=𝑆
𝑃2
as (Ns - N)/Ns = slip s
Rotor copper loss Pc = s x Rotor input P2 i.e Pc = sP2
Thus total rotor copper loss is slip times the rotor input. Now P2 - Pc = Pm i.e P2 - sP2 = Pm
(1 - s)P2 = Pm
Thus gross mechanical power developed is (1 - s) times the rotor input The relationship can be
expressed in the ratio from as,

The ratio of any two quantities on left hand side is same as the ratio of corresponding two sides on the
right hand side.

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This relationship is very important and very frequently required to solve the problems on the power
flow diagram.

Key Point : The torque produced by rotor is gross mechanical torque and due to mechanical losses entire
torque cannot be available to drive load. The load torque is net output torque called shaft torque or useful
torque and is denoted as Tsh. It is related to Pout as,

and Tsh < T due to mechanical losses.

Derivation of k in Torque Equation We have seen earlier that
T = (k s E22 R2)/(R2 2 +(s X2)2)
and it mentioned that k = 3/(2π ns) . Let us see its proof. The rotor copper losses can be expressed as,
Pc = 3 x (I2r)2 x R2
but I2r = (s E2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2), hence substituting above

Now as per P2 : Pc : Pm is 1 : s : 1-s

Pc/Pm = s/(1-s)

1−𝑠 1−𝑠
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑐 = *
𝑠 𝑠

Now Pm = T x ω
= T x (2πN/60)

Now N = Ns (1-s) from definition of slip, substituting in above,

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but Ns/60 = ns in r.p.m.

So substituting in the above equation,

Comparing the two torque equations we can write,

Efficiency of an Induction Motor:

The ratio of net power available at the shaft (Pout) and the net electrical power input (Pin) to the motor
is called as overall efficiency of an induction motor.

The maximum efficiency occurs when variable losses become equal to constant losses. When motor is
on no load, current drawn by the motor is small. Hence efficiency is low. As load increases, current
increases so copper losses also increases. When such variable losses achieve the same value as that of
constant losses, efficiency attains its maximum value. If load is increased further, variable losses
becomes greater than constant losses hence deviating from condition for maximum, efficiency starts
decreasing. Hence the nature of the curve of efficiency against output power of the motor is shown in
the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Efficiency curve for an induction motor

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