Electric Motors- 23EET402

2024-25

Mrs. Vimala C S
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE,
SJBIT
 2
14.08.2023
Semester: IV Course Type: PCC

Course Title: Electric Motors

Course Code: 23EET402 Credits: 3

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P:O) 3:0:0:@ Total Hours: 40

CIE Marks: 50 SEE Marks: 50 Total Marks: 100

SEE Type: Theory Exam Hours: 3 Hours

I. Course Objectives:
 Aims in imparting fundamental knowledge of construction, types of electric motors.
 Operation of AC motors and DC motors required for electrical engineers.
II. Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions):
 Chalk and talk method
 Power point presentation / keynotes
 Videos
 Animations
III. COURSE CONTENT
Module-1: DC Motor and Testing 8 Hrs
DC Motors: Introduction, Classification, Back emf, Principle of operation, Torque equation, Types,
characteristics, Losses, power flow diagram, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency, Speed control
and starters. Numerical.
DC Motor Testing: Swinburne’s Test, Hopkinson’s Test, Field Test and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Sections 8.1-8.4, 8.7, 8.10, 8.12 to 8.15, 8.17 to 8.21, 8.25, 9.1 to 9.5, 10.1 to 10.5, 10.7, 10.8, 10.10.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning)
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Lenz’s Law.
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-2: Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs
Three Phase Induction Motor: Types, Construction, Working Principle, Applications, Slip, significance
of slip, Torque equation, Maximum torque, Torque-slip and torque-speed curves, torque-slip characteristic
covering motoring, generating and braking regions of operation, Losses, efficiency and Numerical.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part I:
Section Part III: Section 7.1 to 7.11, 7.18 to 7.23.
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis, Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-3: Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Performance Analysis of Three Phase Induction Motor: No-load and blocked rotor tests, Performance
Analysis of induction motor-Equivalent Circuit & Circle Diagram, Induction motor working as induction
generator, Cogging and crawling. High torque rotors-double cage and deep rotor bars.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section7.26 to 7.29,7.31 to 7.32, 7.35, 7.40, 9.1

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Pre-requisites (Self Learning):

Electromagnetic Fields, Electric Circuits Analysis.

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

Module-4: Starting and Speed Control of 3ϕ & 1ϕ Induction Motor 8 Hrs

Starting Methods and Speed Control of 3 phase Induction motor:

Need for starter. Direct online, Star-Delta, and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting. Speed
control by voltage, frequency, and rotor resistance methods.
Single Phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory, Types, Construction, Working principle,
Applications, AC Series Motor.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section: 8.1 to 8.3.
Electric Machines, Ashfaq Husain: Chapter 8: Section 8.1 to 8.4, 8.7,8.10 to 8.18
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, Induction Motor working
RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Module-5: Special Machines and applications. 8 Hrs

Synchronous Motor: Working Principles, Starting Methods, Applications, Voltage and Power Factor
control, V and inverted V curves, PMSM
Special Machines: Linear Induction Motor, AC and DC Servo Motor, Brushless DC motor, Stepper
motors, SRM.

Textbook: Chapter: sections: Theory & performance of Electrical Machines, J B Gupta: Part III:
Section 5.1, 5.2,5.5,5.13,5.19,5.20,5.25, 9.3, 10.23.3 Part I: Section 11.12
Electrical Machines, Ashfaq Husain: chapter 9: section 9.1-9.2, 9.4-9.9
Pre-requisites (Self Learning):
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3

IV. COURSE OUTCOMES

On the successful completion of the course, students will be able to
Explain the construction, principle of operation of various types of AC motors, DC motors and
CO1 special purpose motors.
CO2 Analyze the characteristics and performance of DC machines at loaded conditions.
CO3 Explain the starting methods, speed control, and testing of AC &DC Motors

CO4 Determine the performance of AC Motors using different tests

V. CO-PO-PSO MAPPING (mark H=3; M=2; L=1)

PO/PSO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 S1 S2 S3 S4
CO1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
CO4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 - -
VI. Assessment Details (CIE & SEE)
General Rules: Refer Annexure Section 1

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Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE): Refer Annexure Section 1

Semester End Examination (SEE): Refer Annexure Section 1
VII. Learning Resources
VII(a): Textbooks:
Sl. Name of the
Title of the Book Name of the author Edition and Year
No. publisher
Theory of
Performances of Kataria & Sons
1 Gupta.J.B 14thEdition, 2013
Electrical
Machines’
Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2 Electric Machines Ashfaq Husain 2nd Edition 2008
VII(b): Reference Books:

A Textbook of
S Chand and
1 Electrical [Link] Reprint Edition 2014
Company
Technology
Basic Electrical McGraw-Hill
2 Engineering D.P. Kothari 4th Edition,2019
Education
VII(c): Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
Mention the links of the online resources, video materials, etc.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
VIII: Activity Based Learning / Practical Based Learning/Experiential learning:
Activities like seminar, assignments, quiz, case studies, mini projects, industry visit, self-study activities,
group discussions, etc

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Module-1
DC MOTORS

Introduction:
DC Motor converts electrical energy (DC) into mechanical energy. The construction of a d.c. machine
is same whether it is a motor or a generator. Its construction is similar to DC Generator.

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor

The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as 'when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field' it experiences a mechanical force'. In a practical d.c.
motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors play a role of a
current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force. As a conductors are
placed in the slots which are in the periphery, the individual force experienced by the conductors acts
as a twisting or turning force on the armature which is called a torque. The torque is the product of
force and the radius at which this force acts. So overall armature experiences a torque and starts
rotating. Let us study this motoring action in detail.
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The magnetic field
is produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by the field winding
when it carries a current.

Fig-(1)

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the Fig. 1(b). Any current carrying
conductor produces its own magnetic field around it. hence this conductor also produces its own flux,
around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. For direction of current
considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise. For simplicity of understanding, the
main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not shown in the Fig. 1(b).
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Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Fig.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes
are in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two
fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite
direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets
weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there
exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig-(2)
This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under tension. This
exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low flux
density area. i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig-(3)
Key point : In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which
produces the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the
periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall armature
experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.

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Direction of Rotation of D.C. Motor

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by, F = B l I Newton (N)
B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding. l = Active length of the conductor.
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's
left hand. So Fleming's right hand rule is to determine direction of induced e.m.f. i.e. for generating
action while Fleming's left hand rule is to determine direction of force experienced
i.e. for motoring action.
Fleming's left hand rule
The rule states that, 'Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger, middle finger
and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the first finger in the
direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current then the thumb gives
the direction of the force experienced by the conductor'. The Fleming's left hand rule can be
diagrammatically shown as in the Fig. 1.

Fig-(1)
Apply the rule to crosscheck the direction of force experienced by a single conductor, placed in
the magnetic field, shown in the Fig. 2(a), (b), (c) and (d).

Fig-(2)

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It can be seen from the Fig. 2 that if the direction of the main field in which current carrying conductor
is placed, is reversed, force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction. Similarly keeping
main flux direction unchanged, the direction of current passing through the conductor is reversed. The
force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction. However if both the directions are reversed,
the direction of the force experienced remains the same.
Key point : So in a practical motor, to reverse its direction of rotation, either direction of main field
produced by the field winding is reversed or direction of the current passing through the armature is
reversed.
The direction of the main field can be reversed by changing the direction of current passing through
the field winding, which is possible by interchanging the polarities of supply which is given to the field
winding . In short, to have a motoring action two fluxes must exist, the interaction of which produces a
torque.

Significance of Back E.M.F.

It is seen in the generation action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in
the conductor. The question is obvious that in a d.c. motor, after a motoring action, armature starts
rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. So is there a generating action existing in a motor
? The answer to this question is 'Yes'.
After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating
armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This induced e.m.f. in
the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This is according to the Lenz's
law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always so as to oppose the cause producing
it. In a
d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes
the supply voltage. This e.m.f. tries to set up a current through the armature which is in the opposite
direction to that, which supply voltage is forcing through the conductor.

So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f. and denoted as Eb. Though it is
obtained as Eb, basically it gets generated by the generation action which we have seen earlier in case of
generation. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f. equation which is derived earlier. So

where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier in case of generators.

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Fig-(1)

This e.m.f. is shown schematically in the Fig. 1(a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and Ra is the
value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 1(b).
Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor
In case of a generator, generated e.m.f. has to supply armature resistance drop and remaining part is
available across the load as a terminal voltage. But in case of d.c. motor, supply voltage V has to
overcome back e.m.f. which is opposing V and also various drops as armature resistance drop, brush
drop etc. Infact the electrical work done in overcoming the back e.m.f. gets converted into the
mechanical energy developed in the armature. Hence the voltage equation of a d.c. motor can be
written as,

Neglecting the brush drop, the generalized voltage equation is, V = Eb + Ia Ra

The back e.m.f. is always less than supply voltage (Eb < V). But is very small hence under normal
running conditions, the difference between back e.m.f. and supply voltage is very small. The net
voltage across the armature is the difference between the supply voltage and back e.m.f. which decides
the armature current. Hence from the voltage equation we can write,

Key Point : Voltage equations gets changed a little bit depending upon the type of the motor, which is
discussed later.

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Examples 1 ; A 220 V , d.c. motor has an armature resistance of 0.75 Ω. It is drawing an

armature current of 30 A, driving a certain load. Calculate the induced e.m.f. in the motor under this
condition.
Solution : V = 200 V, = 30 A, = 0.75 Ω are the given values. For a
motor, V = Eb + Ia Ra 220 = Eb + 30 x 0.75
Eb = 197.5 volts
This is the induced e.m.f. called back e.m.f. in a motor.

Example 2 ; A 4 pole, d.c. motor has lap connected armature winding. The flux per pole is 30 mWB.
The number of armature conductors is 250. When connected to 230 V d.c. supply it draws an armature
current of 40 A. Calculate the back e.m.f. and the speed with which motor is running. Assume armature
resistance is 0.6 Ω
Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4 as lap, V = 230 V, Z = 250 Φ = 30 mWB = 30 x 10-3 WB Ia = 40 A
From voltage equation, V = Eb + Ia Ra
230 = Eb + 40 x 0.6 Eb = 206 V
And Eb = ΦPNZ/ 60A
206 = (30 x 10-3 x 4 x N x 250)/ (60 x 4) N = 1648 r.p.m.

Back E.M.F. as a Regulation Mechanism

Due to the presence of back e.m.f. the d.c. motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor adjusts itself
to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand. The basic principle of this fact is
that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, Eb α N.
When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the motor reduces
due to which back e.m.f. also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature (V- Eb) increases and
motors draws more armature current. As F= B l I, due to increased current, force experienced by the
conductors and hence the torque on the armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient
to satisfy increased load demand. The motor speeds stops decreasing when the armature current is just
enough to produce torque demand by the new load.
When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back
e.m.f. increases. This causes (V- Eb) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by the
armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to produce the
less torque required by the new load.
Key Point : So back e.m.f. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the back e.m.f.
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Power Equation of a D.C. Motor

The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is given by, V = Eb + Ia Ra Multiplying both sides of the above
equation by Ia we get,

This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor.

VIa = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts.
Ia2Ra = Power loss due the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.
So difference between VIa and Ia2Ra i.e. input - losses gives the output of the armature.
So Eb Ia is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature. This is
denoted as Pm.
... Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power developed in the
armature.
Condition for Maximum Power
For a motor from power equation it is known that,
Pm = Gross mechanical power developed = Eb Ia = VIa - Ia2Ra For maximum P m, dPm/dIa = 0
0 = V - 2IaRa
Ia = V/2Ra i.e. IaRa = V/2 Substituting in voltage equation, V = Eb + IaRa = Eb + (V/2)
Eb = V/2 ............... Condition for maximum power
Key Point : This is practically impossible to achieve as for this, current required is much more than its
normal rated value. Large heat will be produced and efficiency of motor will be less than 50 %.

Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor:

It is seen that the turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of radius R
meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig-(1)

The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then angular speed of the wheel is, ω = (2πN)/60 rad/sec
So workdone in one revolution is,

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W = F x distance travelled in one revolution

= F x 2 R joules
And P = Power developed = Workdone/Time
= (F x 2πR) / (Time for 1 rev) = (F x 2πR) / (60/N) = (F x R) x (2πN/60)
... P = T x ω watts Where T = Torque in N - m ω = Angular speed in rad/sec.
Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is EbIa, as seen from the power equation. So if
speed of the motor is N r.p.m. then,
Power in armature = Armature torque x ω
P= Ta X ω
Eb Ia =Ta x (2N/60)
but Eb in a motor is given by, Eb = (ΦPNZ) / (60A)
(ΦPNZ / 60A) x Ia = Ta x (2πN/60)

This is the torque equation of a d.c. motor.

Example 1 : A 4 pole d.c. motor takes a 50 A armature current. The armature has lap connected 480
conductors. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the gross torque developed by the armature of the
motor.
Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4, Z = 480
Φ = 20 mWb = 20 x 10-3 Wb, Ia = 50 A
Now Ta = 0.159 x ΦIa . (PZ/A) = 0.159 x 20 x 10-3 x 50 x (4x480/4)
= 76.394 N-m

Types of Torque in the Motor

Basically the torque is developed in the armature and hence gross torque produced is denoted as Ta.

Fig. 2 Type of torque

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The mechanical power developed in the armature is transmitted to the load through the shaft of the
motor. It is impossible to transmit the entire power developed by the armature to the load. This is
because while transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss due the friction,
windage and the iron loss. The torque required to overcome the losses is called lost torque, denoted
as Tf. These losses are also called stray losses.
The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque or shaft
torque denoted as Tsh.

The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the armature torque, (Tsh < Ta).
The speed of the motor remains same all along the shaft say N r.p.m. Then the product of shaft
torque Tsh and the angular speed ω rad/sec is called power available at the shaft i.e. net output of the
motor. The maximum power a motor can deliver to the load safely is called output rating of a motor.
Generally it is expressed in H.P. It is called H.P. rating of a motor.

No Load Condition of a Motor

On no load, the load requirement is absent. So Tsh = 0. This does not mean that motor is at hault.
The motor can be rotate at a speed say r.p.m. on no load. The motor draws an armature current of
Ia0.

Where Eb0 is back e.m.f. on no load, proportional to speed N0. Now armature torque Ta for a motor
is, Ta α ΦIa
As flux is present and armature current is present, hence Ta0 i.e. armature torque exists on no load.
Now Ta = Tsh + Ta
but on no load, Tsh = 0

So on no load, motor keeps on rotating at a speed of N0 r.p.m. drawing an armature current of I a0.
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This is just enough to produce a torque Ta0 which satisfies the friction, windage and iron losses of
the motor. On no load, speed of the motor is large hence Eb0 is also large hence (V - Eb0) is very
small hence armature current Ia0is also small. So motor draws lees current on no load and takes
more and more current as motor load increases.
So on no load,

Torque developed = Torque required to overcome friction, windage, iron losses.

Where Eb0 = Back e.m.f. on no load.

and Ia0 = Armature current drawn on no load.
This component of stray losses i.e. is Eb0 Ia0 practically assumed to be constant through the load on
the motor is changed from zero to the full capacity of the motor. So Tf is practically assumed constant
for all load conditions.
Example 2 : A 4 pole, lap wound d.c. motor has 540 conductors. Its speed found to be 1000 r.p.m.
when it is made to run light. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. It is connected to
i)Induced e.m.f. ii) Armature current iii) Stray losses iv) Lost torque
Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4
Running light means it is on no load.
No = 1000 r.p.m.
Z = 540 and Φ = 25 x 10-3 Wb
(ΦPN0 Z)/(60A) = (25 x 10-3 x 4 x 1000 x 540)/(60 x 4) = 225 V

1. Induced e.m.f., Eb0 = 225 V

2. From voltage equation, V = Eb + Ia Ra

V = Eb0 + Ia0 Ra
230 = 225 + Ia0 x 0.8 Ia0
= 6.25 A
1. On no load, power developed is fully the power required to overcome stray losses.
2. Stray losses = Eb0 Ia0 = 225 x 6.25 = 1406.25 W
3. Lost torque = (Eb0 Ia0)/ ωa0 = 1406.25/(2πN0 /60) = (1406.25 x 60)/(2x1000) = 13.428 N-m.

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Types of D.C. Motors

Similar to the d.c. generators, the d.c. motors are classified depending upon the way of connecting the
field winding with the armature winding. The difference types of d.c. motors are ;
1. Shunt motor
2. Series motors
3. Compound motors
The compound motors are further classified as ;
1. Short shunt compound
2. Long shunt compound
D.C. Shunt Motor
In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. shunt motor

Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding. Ra be the resistance of armature winding.
The value of Ra is very small while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more number
of turns with less cross-sectional area.
Voltage and Current Relationship:
The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal to the supply voltage V. The total current
drawn from the supply is denoted as line current I L.
IL = Ia + Ish
Ish = V/Rsh
and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush , Vbrush is generally neglected.
Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it
i.e. Ish.

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Note : As long as supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced
is constant. Hence d.c. shunt motor is called constant flux motor.
D.C. Series Motor
In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the
supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. series motor

Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding. The value of Rse is very small and it is made
of small number of turns having large cross-sectional area.
Voltage and Current Relationship
Let IL be the total current drawn from the supply.
So IL = Ise = Ia and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush
Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to Eb and drop across
armature winding.
Note : In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So
flux produced is proportional to the armature current.
D.C. Compound Motor
The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part of the field
winding connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified as long shunt compound and
short shunt compound motor.
Long Shunt Compound Motor
In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature and the series
field winding as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Long shunt compound motor

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Let Rse be the resistance of series field and Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding. The
total current drawn from supply is IL.
So IL = Ise + Ish , But Ise = Ia
IL = Ia+ Ish And Ish = V/Rsh And V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush But as Ise = Ia ,
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush
Short Shunt Compound Motor
In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with this combination shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Short shunt compound motor

IL = Ise
The entire line current is passing through the series field winding. and IL = Ia + Ish
Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage
equation. So V = Eb + Ise Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush but Ise = IL
V = Eb + IL Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush
Drop across shunt field winding is,
= V - IL Rse = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Apart from these two, compound motor can be classified into two more types,
i) Cumulatively compound motors and ii) Differential compound motors.
Note : If the two field windings are wound in such a manner that the fluxes produced by the two
always help each other, the motor is called cumulatively compound. If the fluxes produced by the two
field windings are trying to cancel each other i.e. they are in opposite direction, the motor is called
differential compound.
A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short shunt
compound motor can be cumulative or differential type.

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Torque and Speed Equations:

Before analyzing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and speed equations are
applied to various types of motors.
T α Φ Ia from torque equation.
This is because, 0.159(PZ)/A is a constant for a given motor.
Now Φ is the flux produced by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing through
the field winding.
Φ α I field
But for various types of motors, current through the field winding is different. Accordingly
torque equation must be modified.
For a d.c. shunt motor, Ish is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence Φ flux is
also constant.
T α Ia for shunt motors
For a d.c. series motor, Ise is same as Ia. Hence flux Φ is proportional to the armature
current Ia. T α Ia α Ia2 for series motors.
Similarly as Eb = (ΦPNZ)(60A), we can write the speed equation as,
Eb α Φ N and N α Eb/Φ
But V = Eb + Ia Ra, neglecting brush drop
Eb = V - Ia Ra
Speed equation becomes,
N α (V-Ia Ra)/Φ, So for shunt motor as flux is constant,
N α V - Ia Ra
While for series motor, flux Φ is proportional to Ia.

These relations play an important role in understanding the various characteristics of different types of
motors.
Speed Regulation:
The speed regulation for a d.c. motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed corresponding to no
load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

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D.C. Motor Characteristics:

The performance of a d.c. motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristics
i. Torque - Armature current characteristics (T Vs Ia ) :
The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is called a
torque- armature current characteristic. These are also called electrical characteristics.
ii. Speed - Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia ) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current characteristic.
iii. Speed - Torque characteristics(N Vs T) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is called speed-
torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical characteristic.
The nature of these characteristics can easily be obtained by using speed and torque equations
derived in previous post. These characteristics play a very important role in selecting a type of
motor for a particular application.

Characteristics of D.C. Shunt Motor

i) Torque - Armature current characteristics For a d.c. motor T α Φ Ia
For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also constant and hence flux is also constant.
... Ta α Φ Ia
The equation represents a straight line, passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig. 1. Torque
increases linearly with armature current. It is seen earlier that armature current is decided by the load.
So as load increases, armature current increases, increasing the torque developed linearly.

Fig. 1 T Vs Ia for shunt motor

Now if shaft torque is plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque is less than the
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armature torque and the difference between the two is loss torque T f as shown. On no load Tsh = 0
but armature torque is present which is just enough to overcome stray losses shown as Ta 0. The
current required is Ia0 on no load to produce Ta0 and hence Tsh graph has an intercept of Ia0 on the
current axis. To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature
current at start. This may damage the motor hence d.c. shunt motors can develop moderate starting
torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting torque requirement is moderate.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics
From the speed equation we get,
N α (V - Ia Ra)/Φ
α V - Ia Ra as Φ is constant
So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop Ia Ra also increases. Hence for
constant supply voltage, V - Ia Ra decreases and hence speed reduces. But as Ra is very small, for
change in Ia from no load to full load, drop Ia Ra is very small and hence drop in speed is also not
significant from no load to full load.

Fig. 2 N Vs Ia for shunt motor

So the characteristics is slightly drooping as shown in the Fig. 2. But for all practical purposes
these type of motors are considered to be a constant speed motors.

iii) Speed- Torque characteristics

These characteristics can be derived from the above two characteristics. This graph is similar to
speed- armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to the armature current. This curve
shows that the speed almost remains constant through torque changes from no load to full load
conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3 N Vs T for shunt motor

Characteristics of D.C. Series Motor
i) Torque - Armature current characteristics
In case of series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current. So flux
produced is proportional to the armature current.
Φ α Ia
Hence Ta α Φ Ia α Ia2
Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current. This
relation is parabolic in nature as shown in the Fig. 1.

As load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases proportional to the
square of the armature current upto a certain limit.
As the entire Ia passes through the series field, there is a property of an electromagnet called
saturation, may occur. Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the flux
produced remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics take the place of straight line
as flux becomes constant, as shown. The difference between Ta and Tsh is loss torque T f which is
also shown in the Fig. 2.
At start as Ta α Ia2 , these types of motors can produce high torque for small amount of armature
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current hence the series motors are suitable for the applications which demand high starting torque.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics
From the speed equation we get,
N α (Eb/Φ) ) αV - Ia Ra - Ia Rse)/ Ia as Φ α Ia in case of series motor
Now the values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of change in Ia on speed overrides the effect
of change in V - Ia Ra - Ia Rse on the speed.
Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≈ V and can be assumed constant. So speed equation reduced

N α 1/Ia
So speed-armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the Fig. 2
iii) Speed - Torque characteristics
In case of series motors, T α Ia2 and N α 1/Ia Hence we can write, N α 1/√T Thus as torque increases
when load increases, the speed decreases. On no load, torque is very less and hence speed increases to
dangerously high value. Thus the nature of the speed- torque characteristics is similar to the nature of
the speed-armature current characteristics.
The speed-torque characteristics of a series motor is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 NVsT for series motor

Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load ?
It is seen earlier that motor armature current is decided by the load. On light load or no load, the
armature current drawn by the motor is very small. In case of a d.c. series motor, Φ α Ia and on no
load as Ia is small hence flux produced is also very small. According to speed equation, N α 1/Φ as
Eb is almost constant.
So on very light load or no load as flux is very small, the motor tries to run at dangerously high speed
which may damage the motor mechanically. This can be seen from the speed- armature current and
the speed-torque characteristics that on low armature current and low torque condition motor shows a

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tendency to rotate with dangerously high speed.

This is the reason why series motor should never be started on light loads or no load conditions. For
this reason it is not selected for belt drives as breaking or slipping of belt causes to throw the entire
load off on the motor and made to run motor with no load which is dangerous.
Characteristics of D.C. Compound Motor
Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is cumulatively
compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the compound motor are the
combination of the shunt and series characteristic.
Cumulative compound motor is capable of developing large amount of torque at low speeds just like
series motor. However it is not having a disadvantages of series motor even at light or no load. The
shunt field winding produces the definite flux and series flux helps the shunt field flux to increase the
total flux level. So cumulative compound motor can run at reasonable speed and will not run with
dangerously high speed like series motor, on light or no load condition.
In differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux decreases as load
increases, thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the load. This property is
dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed. So differential
compound motor is generally not used in practice.
The various characteristics of both the types of compound motors cumulative and the differential are
shown in the Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c).

The exact shape of these characteristics depends on the relative contribution of series and shunt field
windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant then the characteristics take the shape of the
shunt motor characteristics. While if the series field winding is more dominant then the characteristics
take the shape of the series characteristics.

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Applications of DC Motors:

(i) DC Shunt Motor: When constant speed is required DC shunt motors are used.
Example: Lathes, Centrifugal pumps, fans, drilling machines. etc.
(ii) DC Series Motor: For high starting torque we prefer DC series motor. Example: Electric
traction, electric locomotive, cranes, hoists, conveyors etc.
(iii) DC Compound Motor: When we require constant speed and high starting torque Cumulative
compound motors are preferred. Example: shears, punches, coal cutting machine, elevators,
conveyors, printing presses etc.
Differential compound motors have no practical applications (being unstable)

Losses and Efficiency

Losses in a D.C. Machine
The various losses in a d.c. machine whether it is a motor or a generator are classified into three groups
as :
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron or core losses.
3. Mechanical losses.

Copper Losses
The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a winding. There are
basically two windings in a d.c. machine namely armature winding and field winding. The copper
losses are proportional to the square of the current flowing through these windings. Thus the various
copper losses can be given by,

where Ra = Armature winding resistance. and Ia = Armature current.

where Rsh = Shunt field winding resistance. and Ish = Shunt field current

where Rse = Series field winding resistance and Ise = Series field current

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In a compound d.c. machine, both shunt and series field copper losses are present. In addition to the
copper losses, there exists brush contact resistance drop. But this drop is usually included in the
armature copper loss.
There are few losses which vary with the load but their relationship with the load current can not be
identified in simple manner. Such losses are called stray load losses and are the part of variable
losses. These occur in the windings and the core. These include copper stray load loss and iron stray
load loss. These stray load losses are difficult to measure or mathematically calculate hence
practically taken as 1% of the output for the [Link]. Many times these losses are neglected.
Iron or Core Losses
These losses are also called magnetic losses. These losses include hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency and the maximum flux density in the air gap and is
given by,

η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient. where V = Volume of core in m3.

f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
This loss is basically due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core.
The eddy current loss exists due to eddy currents. When armature core rotates, it cuts the magnetic
flux and e.m.f. gets induced in the core. This induced e.m.f. sets up eddy currents which cause the
power loss. This loss is given by,

where K = Constant
t = Thickness of each lamination. V = Volume of core in m3. f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.

The hysteresis loss is minimized by selecting the core material having low hysteresis coefficient.
While eddy current loss is minimized by by selecting the laminated construction for the core. These
losses are almost constant for the d.c. machines.
Mechanical Losss
These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required to overcome
mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. This loss is nothing but the friction and
windage loss. The mechanical losses are also constant for a d.c. machine.
The magnetic and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. For the shunt and compound

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d.c. machines where field current is constant, field copper losses are also constant. Thus stray losses
along with constant field copper losses are called constant losses. While the armature current is
dependent on the load and thus armature copper losses are called variable losses.
Thus for d.c. machine, Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
The Fig. 1 shows the various types of losses taking place in a d.c. machine.

Fig. 1 Losses in a d.c. machine

Power Flow in D.C. Machines
The power flow and energy transformation diagrams at various stages, which takes place in a
d.c. machine are represented diagrammatically in Fig. 2(a) and (b).

Fig. 2

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Efficiency of a D.C. Machine

For a d.c. machine, its overall efficiency is given by,
Let Pout = total output of a machine Pin = total input of a machine
Pcu = variable losses Pi = constant losses
then Pin = Pout + Pcu + Pi

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

In case of a d.c. generator the output is given by, Pout = VI
Pcu = variable losses = I2 Ra
Ia = IL............................. neglecting shunt field current

The efficiency is maximum, when the denominator is minimum. According to maxima- minima
theorem,

Thus for the maximum efficiency, the condition is, Variable losses = Constant losses
Current at Maximum Efficiency
From the condition of maximum efficiency, the current through the d.c. machine at the time
of maximum efficiency can be obtained.
For shunt machines : The Ish is constant and the loss VIsh is treated to be the part of constant losses.
The variable losses are Ia2 Ra.
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At maximum efficiency,
Ia2 Ra = Pi = (Stray + shunt field losses)

This is the armature current at maximum efficiency. Neglecting Ish, Ia = I L is the line current of the
machine.
For series machines : The current through series field is same as armature current which is same as
line current. Hence the constant losses are only mechanical losses while the variable losses are the
copper losses in armature as well as series field winding due to the armature current.
At maximum efficiency,
Ia2 ( Ra + Rse) = Pi = Mechanical losses

Since torque is proportional to the square of the armature current, starting torque of a series motor
is quite high compared to a similarly rated d.c shunt motor.
Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motor :
1. Flux Control
As indicated by the speed equation, the speed is inversely proportional to the flux. The flux is
dependent on the current through the shunt field winding. Thus flux can be controlled by adding a
rheostat (variable resistance) in series with the shunt field winding, as shown in the Fig (1)

Fig. 1 Flux control of shunt motor

At the beginning the rheostat R is kept at minimum indicated as start in the Fig. 1. The supply
voltage is at its rated value. So current through shunt field winding is also at its rated value.
Hence the speed is also rated speed also called normal speed. Then the resistance R is increased due
to which shunt field current Ish decreases, decreasing the flux produced. As N α (1/Φ), the speed of
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the motor increases beyond its rated value.

Thus by this method, the speed control above rated value is possible. This is shown in the Fig. 2, by
speed against field current curve. The curve shows the inverse relation between N and Φ as its nature
is rectangular hyperbola.

It is mentioned that the rated values of electrical parameters should not be exceeded but the speed
which is mechanical parameter can be increased upto twice its rated value.
Advantages of Flux Control Method
1. It provides relatively smooth and easy control.
2. Speed control above rated speed is possible.
3. As the field winding resistance is high, the field current is small. Hence power loss (R) in the
external resistance is very small, which makes the method more economical and efficient.
4. As the field current is small, the size of rheostat required is small.
Disadvantages of Flux Control Method
1. The speed control below normal rated speed is not possible as flux can be increased only
upto its rated value.
2. As flux reduces, speed increases. But high speed affects the commutation making motor
operation unstable. So there is limit to the maximum speed above normal, possible by this
method.

2. Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control

The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. As the supply voltage is
normally constant, the voltage across the armature can be controlled by adding a variable resistance in
series with the armature as shown in the Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 Rheostat control of shunt motor

The field winding is excited by the normal voltage hence Ish is rated and constant in this method.
Initially the rheostat position is minimum and rated voltage gets applied across the armature. So speed
is also rated. For a given load, armature current is fixed. So when extra resistance is added in the
armature circuit, Ia remains same and there is voltage drop across the resistance added (Ia R).
Hence voltage across the armature decreases, decreasing the speed below normal value. By varying
this extra resistance, various speeds below rated value can be obtained. So far a constant load torque,
the speed is directly proportional to the voltage across the armature. The relationship between speed
and voltage across the armature is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 N Vs voltage across armature

Potential Divider Control
The main disadvantages of the above method is, the speed up to zero is not possible as it requires a
large rheostat in series with the armature which is practically impossible. If speed control from zero to
the rated speed is required, by rheostatic method then voltage across the armature can be varied by
connecting rheostat in a potential divider arrangement as shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Potential divider arrangement

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When the variable rheostat position is at 'start' point shown, voltage across the armature is zero and
hence speed is zero. As rheostat is moved towards 'maximum' point shown, the voltage across the
armature increases, increasing the speed. At maximum point the voltage is maximum
i.e. rated hence maximum speed possible is rated speed. The relationship is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig 4 N Vs V
When the voltage across the armature starts increasing, as long as motor does not overcome inertial
and frictional torque, the speed of the motor remains zero. The motor requires some voltage to start
hence the graph of voltage and the speed does not pass through the origin as shown in the Fig.4.

Advantages of Rheostat Control

1. Easy and smooth speed control below normal is possible.
2. In potential divider arrangement, rheostat can be used as a starter.

Disadvantages of Rheostat Control

1. As the entire armature current passes through the external resistance, there are tremendous
power losses.
2. As armature current is more than field current, rheostat required is of large size and capacity.
3. Speed above rated is not possible by this method.
4. Due to large power losses, the method is expensive, wasteful and less efficient.
5. The method needs expensive heat dissipation arrangements.

3. Applied Voltage Control

Multiple voltage control : In this technique the shunt field of the motor is permanently connected to
a fixed voltage supply, while the armature is supplied with various voltages by means of suitable
switch gear arrangements.
The Fig. 1 shows a control of motor by two different working voltages which can be applied to it with
the help of switch gear

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Fig. 1 Multiple voltage control

In large factories, various values of armature voltages and corresponding arrangement can be used to
obtain the speed control.
Advantages of Applied Voltage Control
1. Gives wide range of speed control.
2. Speed control in both directions can be achieved very easily.
3. Uniform acceleration can be obtained.

Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Control

1. Arrangement is expensive as provision of various auxiliary equipments is necessary.
2. Overall efficiency is low.

General steps to solve problems on speed control

1. Identify the method of speed control i.e. in which of the motor, the external resistance is to be
inserted.
2. Use the torque equation, T α Φ Ia to determine the new armature current according to the
condition of the torque given. Load condition indicates the condition of the torque.
3. Use the speed equation N α Eb/Φ to find the unknown back e.m.f. or field current.
4. From the term calculated above and using voltage current relationship of the motor, the value
of extra resistance to be added, can be determined. The above steps may vary little bit
according to the nature of the problem but are always the base of any speed control problem.
Necessity of Starters
𝑽−𝑬𝒃
We know that 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂

When a DC motor starts, the armature is stationary, and its back EMF (electromotive force) is zero.
As a result, the armature draws a very high current
Therefore, Ia = V/Ra
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Here Ra(armature resistance) is very small, typically in the range of 0.1 to 1 ohm ( for Ex for
400V,20Kw D C Motor) This can cause a large current to flow, potentially damaging the armature
windings and brushes.
1. The starter limits this inrush current to a safe value.
2. Provide gradual acceleration -By limiting the starting current, the starter ensures that the motor
accelerates smoothly, preventing mechanical stress and reducing wear and tear on the motor
components.
3. Prevent Damage
High starting currents can: Cause overheating of the motor windings. Damage Insulation. Heavy
sparking and flashover at the commutator and brushes. The starter protects the motor from these risks.
4. Control Speed during Start-Up
The starter helps regulate the speed of the motor during the initial moments of operation by gradually
increasing the voltage or reducing resistance.

Types of Starters:
1) Three Point Starter
Fig 1 shows the three point starter. The starter is basically a variable resistance, divided into number of
sections. The contact points of these sections are called studs and brought out separately shown as
OFF, 1, 2, ... upto RUN. There are three main points of this starter :
1. 'L' Line terminal to be connected to positive of supply.
2. 'A' To be connected to the armature winding.
3. 'F' To be connected to the field winding.

Fig. 1 Three point starter

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Point 'L' is further connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR). The second end of
'OLR' is connected to a point where handle of the starter is provided. This handle is free to move from
its other side against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to the OFF position
under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to the
another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC). The NVC is further connected to terminal 'F'. The
starting resistance is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC are the two protecting
devices of the starter.
Operation : Initially the handle is in the OFF position. The d.c. supply to the motor is switched on.
Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1. At this point,
field winding gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting resistance, through NVC.
While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature and armature current which is high at
start, gets limited. As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc.,
cutting out the starting resistance gradually from the armature circuit. Finally when the starter handle is
in 'RUN' position, the entire starting resistance gets removed from the armature circuit and motor starts
operating with normal speed. The handle is moved manually, and the obvious question is how handle
will remain in the 'RUN' position, as long as motor is running ? Let us see the action of NVC which
will give the answer to this question along with some other functions of NVC.
Function of No Volt Coil:
1. The supply to the field winding is derived through NVC. So when field current flows, it
magnetizes the NVC. When the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece connected to the
handle gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC. Design of NVC is such that it
holds the handle in 'RUN' position against the force of the spring as long as supply to the motor
is proper. Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.
2. Whenever there is supply failure or if field circuit is broken, the current through NVC gets
affected. It looses its magnetism and hence not in a position to keep the soft iron piece on the
handle, attracted. Under the spring force, handle comes back to OFF position, switching off the
motor. So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter handle always comes back
to OFF position whenever there is any supply problems. The entire starting resistance comes
back in series with the armature when attempt is made to start the motor everytime. This
prevents the damage of the motor caused due to accidental starting.
3. NVC performs the similar action under low voltage conditions and protects the motor from such
dangerous supply conditions as well.

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Action of Overload Release:

The current through the motor is taken through the OLR, an electromagnet. Under overload condition,
high current is drawn by the motor from the supply which passes through OLR. Below this magnet,
there is an arm which is fixed at its fulcrum and normally resting in horizontal position. Under
overloading, high current through OLR produces enough force of attraction to attract the arm upwards.
Normally magnet is so designed that up to a full load value of current, the force of attraction produced
is just enough to balance the gravitational force of the arm and hence not lifting it up. At the end of this
arm, there is a triangular iron piece fitted. When the arm is pulled upwards the triangular piece touches
the two points which are connected to the two ends of NVC. This shorts the NVC and voltage across
NVC becomes zero due to which NVC looses its magnetism. So under the spring force, handle comes
back to the OFF position, disconnecting the motor from the supply. Thus motor gets saved from the
overload conditions.
In this starter, it can be observed that as handle is moved from different studs one by one, the part of
the starting resistance which gets removed from the armature circuit, gets added to the
field circuit. As the value of starting resistance is very small as compared to the field winding
resistance, this hardly affects the field winding performance. But this addition of the resistance in the
field circuit can be avoided by providing a brass are or copper are connected just below the stud, the
end of which is connected to NVC, as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Three point starter with brass arc

The handle moves over this arc, supplying the field current directly bypassing the starting resistance.
When such an arc is provided, the connection used earlier to supply field winding, is removed.

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Disadvantage
In this starter, the NVC and the field winding are in series. So while controlling the speed of the motor
above rated, field current is reduced by adding an extra resistance in series with the field winding. Due
to this, the current through NVC also reduced. Due to this, magnetism produced by NVC also reduces.
This may release the handle from its RUN position switching off the motor. To avoid the dependency of
NVC and the field winding, four point starter is used, in which NVC and the field winding are
connected parallel.
2) Four Point Starter
The basic difference between three point and four point starter is the connection of NVC. IN three point,
NVC is in series with the field winding while in four point starter NVC is connected independently
across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F' and 'A'.
Hence any change in the field current does not affect the performance of the NVC. Thus it is ensured
that NVC always produce a force which is enough to hold the handle in 'RUN' position, against force of
the spring, under all the operating conditions. Such a current is adjusted through NVC with the help of
fixed resistance R connected in series with the NVC using fourth point 'N' as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Four point starter

Disadvantage
The only limitation of the four point starter is, it does not provide high speed protection to the motor. If
under running condition, field gets opened, the field current reduces to zero. But there is some residual
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flux present and N α 1/Φ the motor tries to run with dangerously high speed. This is called high
speeding action of the motor. In three point starter as NVC is in series with the field, under such field
failure, NVC release handle to the OFF position. But in four point starter NVC is connected directly
across the supply and its current is maintained irrespective of the current through the field winding.
Hence it always maintains handle in the run position, as long as supply is there. And thus it does not
protect the motor from field failure conditions which result into the high speeding of the motor.

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DC MOTOR TESTING

Swinburne's Test or No Load Test:

This is indirect method of testing d.c. motors in which flux remains practically constant i.e. specially in
case of shunt and compound motors. Without actually loading the motor the losses and hence
efficiency at different loads can be found out.
The motor is run on no load at its rated voltage. At the starting some resistance is connected in series
with the armature which is cut when motor attains sufficient speed.
Now the speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of shunt field rheostat as
shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Swinburnes's Test Experimental Set Up

The no load armature current Ia is measured by ammeter A1 whereas the shunt current is measured by
ammeter A2.
If V is the supply voltage then motor input at no load will be,

There will be Cu loss in the field winding which will be given as,

Let Ra be the resistance of armature,

Thus the stray losses which includes iron, friction and windage losses can be obtained as,
Stray lossses = Input at no load - Field copper losses - No load armature copper
losses

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In the field and armature windings there will be copper loss due to flow of current which will
increase the temperature of the field and armature winding when the motor is loaded. This increase
in temperature will affect their resistance.
Thus the new value of field resistance R'sh and that of armature R'a can be found by considering
that rise in temperature as about 40 oC.
If α1 = Resistance temperature coefficient of copper at room temperature

At room temperature the shunt field winding resistance will be,

Rsh = V/ Ish

Now shunt winding current, I'sh = V/R'sh

Now if we want to find the efficiency of the motor at say 1/4 th full load. It can be calculated as
follows, Let IF.L. = Full load current of motor WF = Field copper loss
W = Stray losses
Load current at 1/4 th full load = IF.L./4
Motor input at 1/4 th full load = V x ( IF.L./4) watts. Armature current at 1/4 th full load,
I'a = ( IF.L./4) - I'sh

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This is the efficiency of motor when the load on motor is 1/4 th of full load which can be found
without loading the motor. The efficiencies at other loads can be calculated similarly.
Advantages
1. Since constant losses are known, the efficiency can be estimated at any load.

2. The method is convenient and economical as less power is required for testing even a large
motor i.e. only no load power is to be supplied.

3. The motor is not required to be loaded i.e. only test to be carried out is the no load test.
Disadvantages
1. In this method, the iron losses are assumed to be constant which is not the true case as they
change from no load to full load. Due to armature reaction at full load there will be distortion
in flux which will increase the iron loss.

2. The only test which is carried out is the no load test. Hence it is difficult to know whether
there will be satisfactory communication at full load.

3. We have assumed that there is rise in temperature of 40 oC at full load which can not be
checked actually as we are not actually loading the motor.
4. As it is a no load test it cannot be performed on a series motor.

Hopkinson's Test:
This test is called regenerative test or to back test which can be carried out on two identical d.c.
machines mechanically coupled to each other and simultaneously tested. Thus the full load test can be
carried out on two identical shunt machines without wasting their outputs. One of the machines is
made to act as a motor while the other as a generator. The mechanical output obtained from the motor
drives the generator whose electrical output supplies the greater part of input to the motor. The motor
is connected to the supply mains only to components for losses since in absence of losses, the motor-
generator set would have run without any external power supply. But due to losses, the generator
output is not sufficient to drive the motor. Thus motor takes current from the supply to account for
losses.

Fig. 1 shows the connection diagram for Hopikinson's test. The two shunt machines are connected in
parallel. One of the machines is then started as a motor. Here the stator connections are not shown for
simplicity.

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Fig. Hopkinson's test Experimental Set Up

The switch S is kept open. The other machine which is coupled to first will act as load on first which is
acting as motor. Thus second machine will act as a generator. The speed of motor is adjusted to normal
value with the help of the field rheostat. The voltmeter reading is observed. The voltage of the
generator is adjusted by its field rheostat so that voltmeter reading is zero. This will indicate that the
generator voltage is having same magnitude and polarity of that of supply voltage. This will prevent
heavy circulating current flowing in the local loop of armatures on closing the switch. Now switch S is
closed. The two machines can be put into any load by adjusting their field rheostats. The generator
current I2 can be adjusted to any value by increasing the excitation of generator or by reducing the
excitation of motor. The various reading shown by different ammeters are noted for further
calculations.
The input to the motor is nothing but the output of the generator and small power taken from supply.
The mechanical output given by motor after supplying losses will in turn drive the generator.
Let V = Supply Voltage
I1 = Current taken from the supply I2 = Current supplied by generator I3 = Exciting current of generator
I4 = Exciting current of motor
Ra = Resistance of armature of each machine η = Efficiency of both generator and motor. Input to the
motor = V (I1 + I2 )
Output of motor = η x input = V (I1 +I2 )
The output of motor will be given as input to the generator. Input to generator = η V (I1 +I2 ) Output of
generator = η x input = η .η V (I1 + I2 )
= η2 V (I1 + I2 )................... (I)
The output of generator can also be given as,
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Output of generator = V . I2 ............................................................................. (II)

From equations (i) and (ii), η2 V (I1 + I2 ) = I2

But the assumption of equal efficiencies of two machines is true in case of only large output machines
where difference in armature currents of two machines is not large. Also the difference in excitation
current required to circulate full load current in the armature will not affect the iron losses. But in case
of small machines the difference between armature and field currents is large. So efficiencies cannot be
to be same. Here the stray losses are assumed to be equal whereas armature and field copper losses are
separately determined for estimating the efficiencies separately.
Armature copper loss in generator = (I2 + I3 )2 Ra
Armature copper loss in motor = (I1 + I2 - I4 )2 Ra
Copper loss in field winding of motor = V I3
Copper loss in field winding of motor = V I4
But total losses in generator and motor are equal to the power supplied by the mains. Power drawn
from supply = V I1
The stray loss for both the machines = V I2 - {{I2 + I3 )2 Ra + (I1 + I2 - I4 )2 Ra + V I3 + V I4 }
= Ws (say)
Assuming that stray losses are equally divided between the two machines. Stray loss for each
machine = Ws /2
The machine which is acting as a motor Total losses = (I1 + I2 - I4 )2 Ra + V I4 + Ws
/2 Input to motor = (I1 + I2 )
Efficiency of motor, ηm = Output/Input = (Input - Losses)/Input

The machine which is acting as a generator,

Total losses = (I2 + I3)2 Ra + V I3 + Ws /2
Output of generator = V I2

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Efficiency of generator, ηg = Output/Input = Output/(Output + Losses)

Advantages
The various advantages of Hopkinson's test are,
1. The power required for conducting the test is small compared to full load powers of
the two machines.

2. Since the machines are operated at full load conditions, change in iron loss due to distortion
in flux at full load will be included in the calculations.

3. As the machines are tested under full load conditions, the temperature rise and
quality of communication of the two machines can be observed.

4. The test is economical as power required to conduct the test is very small which is just
sufficient to meet the losses.

5. There is no need for arranging any actual load. Similarly by changing the field currents
of two machines, the load can be easily changed and a load test over complete range of load
can be taken.

Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of Hopkinson's test are,
1. There is difficulty in availability of two identical machines.

2. The iron losses in the two machines cannot be separated. The iron losses are different in
both the machines because of different excitations.

3. The machines are not loaded equally in case of small machines which may lead to
difficulty in analysis.
This test is better suited in case of large machines.

Field Test:
This is one of the methods of testing the d.c. series motors. Unlike shunt motors, the series motor
cannot be tested by the methods which area available for shunt motors as it is impossible to run the
motor on no load. It may run at dangerously high speed on no load. In case of small series motors
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brake test may be employed.

The series motors are usually tested in pairs. The field test is applied to two similar series motors
which are coupled mechanically. The connection diagram for the test is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Field test Experimental Set Up

As shown in the Fig. 1 one machine is made to run as a motor while the other as a generator which is
separately excited. The field of the two machines are connected in series so that both the machines are
equally excited. This will make iron losses same for the two machines. The two machines are running
at the same speed. The generator output is given to the variable resistance R.
The resistance R is changed until the current taken by motor reaches full load value. This will be
indicated by ammeter A1. The other readings of different meters are then recorded.
Let V = Supply voltage
I1 = Current taken by motor I2 = Load current
V2 = Terminal p.d. of generator
Ra, Rse = Armature and series field resistance of each machine
Power taken from supply = VI1
Output obtained from generator = V2 I2
Total losses in both the machines, WT = VI1 - V2 I2
Armature copper and field losses, WCU = ( Ra + 2 Rse ) I12 + I22 Ra Total
stray losses = WT – WCU

Since the two machines are equally excited and are

running at same speed the stray loses are equally divided.

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For Motor ;
Input to motor = V1 I1
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss
= I12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws
Output of motor = Input - Total losses = V1 I - [ I12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws ]

For Generator :
Efficiency of generator is of little importance because it is running under conditions of separate
excitation. Still it can be found as follows.
Output of generator = V2 I2
Field Cu loss = I12 Rse Armature
Cu loss = I22 Ra
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss = I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws
Input to generator = Output + Total losses = V2 I2 + [ I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws ]

The important point to be noted is that this is not regenerative method though the two machines are
mechanically coupled because the generator output is not fed back to the motor as in case of
Hopkinson's test but it is wasted in load resistance.

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