Advanced Communications and

Networks(ACN-9C714)
LL T T P CP/D CIE CSEE
33 0 0 0 3 0 40 3 60

Unit I-SPREAD SPECTRUM

COMMUNICATIONS,
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
Faculty: [Link] CHARY(VRC),
Assistant Professor,ECE,SNIST
Class: IV [Link],I Semester, ECE
 CONTENTS
• Syllabus
• Reference Textbooks and Video lectures
• Prerequisites
• Course Objectives and Course Outcomes
• Unit-1

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 SYLLABUS
UNIT-
1. Spread Spectrum Communications,Direct sequence spread
spectrum
2. Wireless Networking
3. Mobile IP And Wireless Access Protocol
…..MID 1

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 SYLLABUS
UNIT-
4. Wireless LANs
[Link] PANs/IEEE 802.15x,Broad Band Wireless
MANs/IEEE 802.16x
[Link] Frequency Division Multiplexing and MIMO
System

…..mid 2
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 UNIT I .

• Spread Spectrum Communications:

Spreading sequences- Properties of Spreading Sequences,Pseudo-
noise sequence, Gold sequences, Kasami sequences, Walsh
Sequences, Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor Sequences, Barker
Sequence, Complementary Codes
Digital Modulation DQPSK ,8PSK, 16PSK, 8QAM, 16QAM.
• Direct sequence spread spectrum:
DS-CDMA Model, Conventional receiver, Rake Receiver
,Synchronization in CDMA, Power Control, Soft handoff, Multiuser
detection – Optimum multiuser detector, Linear multiuser detection
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 UNIT II
Wireless Networking
• Introduction, Differences between wireless and fixed telephone
networks, Development of wireless networks, Traffic routing in
wireless networks, Wireless data services, Common channel
signalling, ISDN,SS7.
Applications: Ethernet

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 UNIT III
Mobile IP And Wireless Access Protocol
• Mobile IP: IP Packet Delivery, Agent Discovery, Tunneling and
Encapsulation, IPV6-Network Layer In The Internet- Mobile IP
Session Initiation Protocol WAP Architecture-overview, WML
scripts, WAP service, WAP session protocol, Wireless transaction,
Wireless datagram protocol.

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 UNIT IV
Wireless LANs
• Introduction, Fundamentals of WLANs, Network Architecture,
IEEE802.11standards, WiFi Protocols – 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11a,
802.11n, 802.11ac; Frequency allocation - 802.11b, 802.11g,
802.11a; Modulation and coding schemes - 802.11b, 802.11g,
802.11a, 802.11n; Security, Hot spots, Virtual private networks,
HIPERLAN standard.

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 UNIT V
• Wireless PANs/IEEE 802.15x:
Introduction to IEEE 802.15x Technologies: Wireless PAN
Applications and Architecture , IEEE 802.15.1 Physical Layer
Details, Bluetooth Link Controllers
Basics, Bluetooth Link.
• Broad Band Wireless MANs/IEEE 802.16x:
Introduction to WMAN/IEEE 802.16x Technology, IEEE
802.16Wireless MANs, IEEE 802.16 MAC Layer Details

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 UNIT VI
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
and MIMO System
• Basic Principles of Orthogonality, Single vs Multicarrier Systems,
OFDM Block Diagram and Its Explanation, FDM Signal
Mathematical Representation, Selection parameter for Modulation
Pulse shaping in OFDM, Space Diversity and System, MIMO
Based System Architecture, Long-Term Evolution:, LTE
Architecture, Enhanced Node B, Core network, Radio channel
components, TD-LTE,VoLTE.

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 Textbooks
• Principles of Mobile Communication, 3rdEdition, Springer
[Chapter9]- UNIT I
• Advanced Communication Systems, Wayne Tomasi [Chapter 2]
- UNIT I
• Wireless communications by T.S. Rappaport [Chapter 9] – Unit II
• Wireless communication and Networks-William Stallings (Chapter
12) - UNIT III
• Wireless Communication and Networks, William Stallings
[Chapter 14]- Unit IV
• Bluetooth™: Connect Without Cables by Jennifer Bray, Charles F.
Sturman – Unit V
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 Video Lectures
• [Link]
Fd3A7DZvUZPnhnfNRtDxf1tSjRBvG
• [Link]

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 Prerequisites
• SS
• ADC
• CMC

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 Course Objectives
• To explore cutting-edge techniques and technologies in modern
communication systems and network architectures, enabling
students to address complex challenges and innovate solutions in
the field.

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 Course Outcomes
After studying this course, the students will be able to
CO1. Analyze the SS communication and Multiple Access Techniques
for Wireless Communication. (L4- Unit I)
CO2. Compare wired and wireless communication systems with
examples (L2- Unit II).
CO3. Evaluate Mobile IP and Wireless Access Protocols architecture
(L5- Unit III).
CO4. Illustrate the various wireless protocols (L2- Unit IV & V).
CO5. Analyze and design advanced wireless communication systems
using OFDM and MIMO technologies for improved data transmission
and network performance (L4- Unit VI).
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 Outline Of The Unit
• Spread Spectrum Communications:Spreading sequences- Properties
of Spreading Sequences,Pseudo- noise sequence, Gold sequences (1)
• Kasami sequences Walsh Sequences, Orthogonal Variable Spreading
Factor Sequences, Barker Sequence, Complementary Codes (1)
• Digital Modulation DQPSK ,8PSK, 16PSK, 8QAM, 16QAM (2)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum: DS-CDMA Model ,Conventional
receiver, Rake Receiver (1)
• Synchronization in CDMA, Power Control (1)
• Soft handoff, Multiuser detection – Optimum multiuser detector, Liner
multiuser detection (1)
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RAJENDRA CHARY 17
 Spread Spectrum Communication
• Spread spectrum communication refers to a technology that
broadens the frequency spectrum of a signal, allowing it to occupy
a larger bandwidth than conventional systems.

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 Spread Spectrum Communication(contd.)
• Input is fed into channel encoder
– Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central frequency
• Signal is modulated using sequence of digits
– Spreading code/sequence
– Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom number
generator
• Increases bandwidth significantly
– Spreads spectrum
• Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal
• Demodulated signal is fed into channel decoder
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 Why Spread Spectrum Communication?
• Enhanced Security and Privacy
• Multiple Access Capability
• Resistance to Multipath Fading
• Reduced Power Spectral Density
• Resistance to Jamming and Interference

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 Types of Spread Spectrum
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

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 Applications of
Spread spectrum communications
• Military communications
• Wireless local area networks (WLANs)
• Bluetooth and other short-range wireless communication
• Global positioning systems (GPS)
• Satellite communication
• Cellular networks
• Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG)

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 Spreading Sequence
• A Spreading Sequence is a pseudo-random binary or multi-level
sequence used to spread the bandwidth of a signal over a wider
frequency range in spread spectrum communication systems.
• Examples of Spreading Sequences: m-sequences (maximum
length sequences),Gold sequences, Kasami sequences, Walsh-
Hadamard sequences, PN sequences (Pseudo-Noise).

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 Properties of Spreading Sequence
• Balance property
• Runlength property
• Correlation property
• Delay and add property

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 Balance Property
• The number of output binary ones and the number of binary output
zeros in a single period differs by at most one.
• The no. of ones is 1 more than the no. of zeros for a PN sequence.

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 Runlength Property
• The runlength property refers to the distribution and number of "runs"
in a spreading sequence.
A run is defined as a consecutive sequence of identical symbols (either
1’s or 0’s in binary sequences, or +1’s and –1’s in bipolar format).

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 Correlation Property
• Correlation measures similarity between two sequences as one is
shifted over the other.
• It can be:
Autocorrelation: Compare a sequence with itself
Cross-correlation: Compare a sequence with another sequence

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Autocorrelation Property

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Autocorrelation Property(contd.)

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Cross-correlation

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Cross-correlation(contd.)
Shift, RAB( )
0 -1
1 -1
2 -1
3 -1
4 -1
5 -1
6 -1
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 Delay and Add Property
• The Delay-and-Add Property refers to the ability of certain
spreading sequences (especially maximal-length sequences or m-
sequences) to reproduce themselves when a delayed version is
added to the original.

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 Pseudo-noise Sequence
• A Pseudo-noise(PN) sequence is defined as a coded binary
sequence with autocorrelation properties.
• It is also called pseudo random binary sequence.
• Pseudo-noise sequence is of 2 types:
1)Periodic sequence: A sequence of 1’s and 0’s repeats itself exactly
with a known period.
eg m-sequence.
2)Aperiodic sequence- eg:Barker sequence
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 Pseudo-noise Sequence(contd.)
• PN sequences are usually generated using an LFSR (Linear
Feedback Shift Register), which has n flip-flops and uses a
feedback function (XOR of specific bits).
• n flipflops will generate a PN sequence of length 2n-1.
• At each pulse of the clock, the state of the flipflop is shifted to next
flipflop.
• The output of the logic circuit is given as the feedback to the PN
generator.

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 Pseudo-noise Sequence(contd.)
• The feedback function is obtained using modulo-2 addition of the
flipflop outputs at various stages.

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 PN sequence for m=3

Let S0=1, S1=0, S2=0 initially

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 Properties of Pseudo-noise Sequence
• Balance property: The no. of 1’s in the PN sequence is always
one more than the no. of 0’s.
• Run property: Run means a subsequence of identical symbols(1’s
or 0s) within one period of sequence.
• For any sequence, one run of 1’s is of length n
• One run of 0’s is of length n-1
• One run of 1s & 0s of length n-2
• Two runs of 1s & two runs of 0s of length n-4
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Properties of Pseudo-noise Sequence(contd.)

• Total no. of runs is (n+1)/2

• Autocorrelation property: The autocorrelation of a maximum
length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
• For a m-sequence of length N, the autocorrelation sequence is
periodic with period N and two valued
Rc(k) =1 for k=lN
=-1/N for k≠lN l=any integer

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Properties of Pseudo-noise Sequence(contd.)

• Combining both,
Rc(k)=(1/N)x[no. of agreements-no. of disagreements]
Consider sequence 0011101(k=0 to 6)
Rc(0)=1/7
Rc(1)=Rc(2)=Rc(3)=Rc(4)=Rc(5)=Rc(6)=-1/7

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 Applications of Pseudo-noise Sequence
• CDMA
• GPS
• Radar and Sonar systems
• Cryptography
• Random number generation
• BIST in VLSI

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 Gold Sequence/code
• A Gold Sequence is a type of binary sequence generated by
combining (XORing) two maximum length sequences (m-
sequences) from Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs) with
specific properties.
• Gold codes are popular in CDMA systems (like 3G mobile
communication and GPS) because they have:
Good autocorrelation (used for synchronization),
Low cross-correlation (used to distinguish between users).

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 Gold Code Generation example

Step 1: Generate Two m-Sequences

Let’s use these two example m-sequences:
•m-sequence A: m1 = 1110100
•m-sequence B: m2 = 1011100
These sequences are periodic, so we can keep shifting one of them cyclically
to create more codes.
Step 2: Generate Gold Code Family
We XOR m1 with shifted versions of m2. Since the sequence length is 7,
we can make 7 unique cyclic shifts of m2.
Let’s list the 7 cyclic shifts of m2:
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Gold Code Generation example(contd.)

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Gold Code Generation example(contd.)
shift Shifted m2 XOR with m1 Gold code
0 1011100 0101000 GC1
1 0101110 1011010 GC2
2 0010111 1100011 GC3
3 1001011 0111111 GC4
4 1100101 0010001 GC5
5 1110010 0000110 GC6
6 0111001 1001101 GC7
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 Gold Code Generation example(contd.)
Step 3: Include Original Sequences
The Gold code family includes:
•m1 (original) → 1110100
•m2 (original) → 1011100
•7 XOR results(previous slide)

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 Properties of Gold Sequence
• Length: 2n−1 , where n is the length of the shift register.
• Number of sequences: 2n+1.

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 Applications of Gold sequence
• Used in GPS, 3G CDMA, and other systems where multiple users
share the same frequency.
• Ideal for user separation in multi-user environments.

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 Kasami Sequences
• A Kasami sequence is a type of pseudo-random binary sequence
used in spread spectrum and CDMA systems.
• It’s known for having very low cross-correlation, even lower than
Gold codes, making it ideal for multi-user interference reduction.
• There are two types:
Small set Kasami sequences
Large set Kasami sequences

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 Kasami Sequence (Small Set) Construction

Kasami sequence is generated using:

1)A base m-sequence of length L=2n−1
2)A decimated version of the m-sequence: take every dth bit (e.g.
d=2n/2+1)
3)XOR the base sequence and its decimated versions to generate the
Kasami set

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 Kasami Sequence example
• Let n=4,So, sequence length L=24−1=15
1)Choose a base m-sequence (length 15). Let’s take:
m-sequence (m) = 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
2) Compute d = 2{n/2} + 1 = 22 + 1 = 5
• Generate decimated sequence md by taking every 5th bit of m:
• Starting from index 0:
m = 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 (repetition of 101
sequence,period=3)
md =1 0 11 0 11 0 11 0 11 0 1
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 Kasami Sequence example(contd.)
md (0)=101101101101101 > shift by ‘0’
md (1)= 110110110110110 > shift by ‘1’
md (2)= 011011011011011 > shift by ‘2’
3) Now XOR m with m_d:
m md (0)=001011010111100
m md (1)=010000001100111
m md (2)=111101100001010

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 Kasami Sequence example(contd.)
• Kasami small set which contains 2n/2 sequences.
• Here n=4,so we get 4 sequences. Three XORed sequences and
original sequence.

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 Properties of kasami Sequence
• Kasami sequences have length N=2n−1, where n is even.
• Low cross-correlation: Better than m-sequences.
• Kasami sequences are binary (0s and 1s or ±1 representations).
• Built using a base m-sequence and a decimated version of it
(specifically, with a decimation factor of d=2n/2+1).
• The Kasami sequences for:
Small set: 2n/2 sequences (including the original m-sequence)
Large set: 2n sequences, but with slightly worse cross-correlation
properties.

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 Applications of kasami Sequence
• Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Systems
• Radar Systems
• LIDAR Systems
• Satellite Communications

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 Walsh-Hadamard Sequences
• A Walsh–Hadamard sequence (also called a Walsh code) is an
orthogonal set of binary sequences (±1 or 0/1 format), derived
from the Hadamard matrix.
• They are deterministic, mutually orthogonal and used in spread
spectrum and multi-user systems.
• Walsh-Hadamard sequences are obtained by selecting as sequences
the rows of a Hadamard matrix HM .
• For M=2,the Hadamard matrix is

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 Walsh-Hadamard Sequences(contd.)
• Larger Hadamard matrices are obtained by using the recursion
• For example,

• The rows in the Hadamard matrix define the Walsh-Hadamard

sequences and that they are all orthogonal to each other.
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 Properties of Walsh-Hadamard Sequences

• Any two Walsh sequences of the same length are orthogonal. i.e
dot product of any two different Walsh codes = 0.
• Walsh sequences consist of values +1 and −1 (bipolar) or
sometimes 0 and 1 (unipolar).
• Walsh sequences are not random. They are completely
deterministic.
• Sequence length is always a power of 2. Common lengths: 2, 4, 8,
16, 32, etc.

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 Applications of Walsh-Hadamard Sequences

• CDMA Systems like IS-95,WCDMA

• OFDM and MC-CDMA
• Digital Testing / BIST
• Signal Processing / Image Compression
• Remote Sensing and LIDAR
• Cryptography

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Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor(OVSF)
Sequence
• Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes are used in
CDMA systems like WCDMA (UMTS) to enable multiple users to
share the same frequency band by assigning them unique spreading
codes.
• These codes are orthogonal, meaning they can be distinguished at
the receiver, even when transmitted simultaneously.
• OVSF codes are also "variable" because they can have different
lengths (spreading factors), allowing for different data rates for
different users.

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OVSF Sequence(contd.)

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 Properties of OVSF Sequence
• Supports different spreading factors (SF =1,2,4,8,16,etc.), allowing
variable data rates.
• Sequence lengths are always powers of 2: L=2n.
• Codes can be dynamically allocated and released based on user
needs.
• Enables multiple users/services with efficient bandwidth use.
• Allows different users/services to transmit at different datarates
without losing orthogonality.
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 Applications of OVSF Sequence
• WCDMA (3G Mobile Networks)
• CDMA Downlink Channelization
• Adaptive Bandwidth Allocation

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 Barker Sequence/Code
• The Barker sequence is a sequence of bits (0s and 1s) that has a
specific property: its autocorrelation function has a very small
value for all nonzero offsets.
• Barker Sequences exist for lengths 2,3,4,5,7,11 and 13 given as:

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 Barker Sequence(contd.)
• The mirror images (or time reversed) sequences are also Barker
sequences.
• Barker sequences of other lengths do not exist.
• For the Barker sequences, the autocorrelation function is given as:

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 Properties of Barker Sequence
• Barker sequences are predefined and require no LFSR or feedback
logic.
• Barker sequences have fixed pattern and cannot be extended
arbitrarily like PN sequences.
• Because of their short length and fixed form, Barker sequences are
easy to implement in both hardware and software.
• No Barker sequences exist for lengths greater than 13.

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 Applications of Barker Sequence
• Wi-Fi / IEEE 802.11
• Software Defined Radio (SDR)
• Wireless Communication
• Digital Signal Processing
• Radar and Sonar
• GPS

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 Complementary Codes
• Complementary codes are sets of sequences with special
correlation properties that are useful in various applications like
CDMA and OFDM systems.
• Complementary code have the property that the sum of their
aperiodic autocorrelation functions are zero for all delays except
zero delay. i.e

• A variety of constructions exist for complementary codes.

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 Complementary Codes(contd.)
• The IEEE 802.l1b standard uses CCK(complementary code
keying).
• For 11 Mb/s transmission length-8 sequences are used. The eight
complex chip values for CCK code words(with QPSK phasesΦ)
are

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 Complementary Codes(contd.)
• The IEEE 802.l1b standard for 5.5 Mb/s transmission is similar but
uses CCK with length-4 sequences.
• The complex chip values for the CCK code words are

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 Properties of Complementary Codes
• A complementary code consists of two sequences, usually of equal
length.
• Complementary codes can be binary (±1) or polyphase (more
complex sequences using multiple phases of signals).
• Complementary sequences do not need to be balanced.
• Unlike PN or Gold codes, length options are more limited, often
based on powers of 2.

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 Applications of Complementary Codes
• Channel Estimation and Synchronization
• Matched Filtering Applications
• Acoustic and Ultrasonic Imaging
• Satellite and Deep Space Communication
• Wi-Fi / IEEE 802.11a/g/n
• Wireless Communication
• Radar Systems

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 Digital Modulation
• Digital modulation is the process of encoding digital information
onto a carrier wave by varying its amplitude, frequency or phase.
• Digital modulation is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog
signals(carriers) between two or more points in a communication
system.
• Eg: DQPSK ,8PSK, 16PSK,
8QAM, 16QAM

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 M-Ary encoding
• M-ary encoding is a method of encoding digital data in which
each symbol in the signal represents log₂(M) bits, where M is the
number of distinct signal levels, phases, frequencies or amplitudes.

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M-Ary encoding(contd.)

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 DQPSK
• DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) is a
modulation technique that transmits data by encoding changes
(differences) in phase between successive symbols rather than
absolute phase values.
• It is a differential version of QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying).

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DQPSK(contd.)

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 DQPSK(contd.)
Transmitter:
•Convert bits into bit pairs (symbols).
•Map each bit pair to a phase change using the lookup table.
•Add the phase change to the current phase.
•Modulate the carrier signal with the updated phase.
Receiver:
• Detect the phase difference between the current and previous
received symbol.
• Decode that difference into the corresponding bit pair.
• No need for carrier phase synchronization!
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DQPSK(contd.)

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 8PSK
• With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing
eight different output phases.
• With 8-PSK, n=3, M=8 and there are eight possible output phases.
• To encode eight different phases, the incoming bits are encoded in
groups of three, called tribits (23=8).

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8PSK Transmitter

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 8PSK Transmitter(contd.)
• The incoming serial bit stream enters the bit splitter, where it is
converted to a parallel, three-channel output (the I or in-phase
channel, the Q or in-quadrature channel and the C or control
channel).
• Consequently, the bit rate in each of the three channels is fb/3.
• The bits in the I and C channels enter the I channel 2-to-4-level
converter and the bits in the Q and channels enter the Q channel 2-
to-4-level converter.
• Essentially, the 2-to-4-level converters are parallel-input digital-to-
analog converters(DACs).

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 8PSK Transmitter(contd.)
• With two input bits, four output voltages are possible. The I or Q
bit determines the polarity of the output analog signal (logic 1V
and logic 0V), whereas the C or bit determines the magnitude
(logic 1= 1.307 V and logic 0 =0.541 V).
• Consequently, with two magnitudes and two polarities, four
different output conditions are possible.

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8PSK Transmitter(contd.)

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8PSK modulator truth table,phase diagram
and constellation diagram

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 8PSK Transmitter(contd.)
• It can be seen that the angular separation between any two adjacent
phasors is 45°, half what it is with QPSK. Therefore, an 8-PSK
signal can undergo almost a ±22.5° phase shift during transmission
and still retain its integrity.

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8PSK Receiver

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 8PSK Receiver(contd.)
• The power splitter directs the input 8-PSK signal to the I and Q
product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit.
• The carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original reference
oscillator signal. The incoming 8-PSK signal is mixed with the
recovered carrier in the I product detector and with a quadrature
carrier in the Q product detector.
• The outputs of the product detectors are 4-level PAM signals that
are fed to the 4-to-2-level analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

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 8PSK Receiver(contd.)
• The outputs from the I channel 4-to-2-level converter are the I and
C bits, whereas the outputs from the Q channel 4-to-2-level
converter are the Q and bits.
• The parallel-to-serial logic circuit converts the I/C and bit pairs to
serial I, Q and C output data streams.

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 Bandwidth considerations of 8PSK
• With 8-PSK, because the data are divided into three channels, the
bit rate in the I, Q, or C channel is equal to one-third of the binary
input data rate (fb/3).

RAJENDRA CHARY 91
 Bandwidth considerations of 8PSK
• Mathematically,

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RAJENDRA CHARY 93
 16PSK
• 16-PSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M=16; there are 16
different output phases possible.
• With 16-PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are combined, producing
16 different output phases.
• With 16-PSK, n =4 and M =16; therefore, the minimum bandwidth
and baud equal one-fourth the bit rate (fb/4).

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16PSK truth table and constellation diagram

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 8QAM
• 8QAM is a digital modulation scheme that conveys 3 bits per symbol
using a combination of:
Amplitude modulation (varying signal strength)
Phase modulation (varying phase)
• 8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M =8.
• Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a
constant-amplitude signal.

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 8QAM Transmitter
• The incoming data are divided into groups of three bits (tribits): the
I, Q and C bit streams, each with a bit rate equal to one-third of the
incoming data rate.
• Again, the I and Q bits determine the polarity of the PAM signal at
the output of the 2-to-4-level converters and the C channel
determines the magnitude.
• Because the C bit is fed uninverted to both the I and the Q channel
2-to-4-level converters, the magnitudes of the I and Q PAM signals
are always equal. Their polarities depend on the logic condition of
the I and Q bits and, therefore, may be different.

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8QAM transmitter block diagram and truth
table 2-to-4 level converters

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8QAM modulator truth table,phasor
diagram,constellation diagram

RAJENDRA CHARY 99
Output phase & amplitude v/s time
relationship for 8QAM

RAJENDRA CHARY 100

 8QAM Receiver
• An 8-QAM receiver is almost identical to the 8-PSK receiver shown in
Figure(slide no.86).
• The differences are the PAM levels at the output of the product detectors and
the binary signals at the output of the analog-to-digital converters.
• Because there are two transmit amplitudes possible with 8-QAM that are
different from those achievable with 8-PSK, the four demodulated PAM
levels in 8-QAM are different from those in 8-PSK.
• Therefore, the conversion factor for the analog-to-digital converters must
also be different. Also, with 8-QAM the binary output signals from the I
channel analog-to-digital converter are the I and C bits, and the binary output
signals from the Q channel analog-to-digital converter are the Q and C bits.
RAJENDRA CHARY 101
RAJENDRA CHARY 102
 16QAM(Transmitter)
• As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M =16.
The input data are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16).

RAJENDRA CHARY 103

16QAM Transmitter(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 104

 16QAM Transmitter(contd.)
• The input binary data are divided into four channels: I, I’, Q, and
Q’.
• The bit rate in each channel is equal to one-fourth of the input bit
rate ( fb/4).
• Four bits are serially clocked into the bit splitter; then they are
outputted simultaneously and in parallel with the I, I’ , Q, and Q’
channels.
• The I and Q bits determine the polarity at the output of the 2-to-4-
level converters (a logic 1 = positive and a logic 0 = negative).
• The I’and Q’ bits determine the magnitude (a logic 1 =0.821 V and
a logic 0 =0.22 V)
RAJENDRA CHARY 105
 16QAM Transmitter(contd.)
• Consequently, the 2-to-4-level converters generate a 4-level PAM
signal. Two polarities and two magnitudes are possible at the
output of each 2-to-4-level converter. They are 0.22 V and 0.821 V.
• The PAM signals modulate the in-phase and quadrature carriers in
the product modulators.
• Four outputs are possible for each product modulator.
• For the I product modulator,they are +0.821 sin ωct, -0.821 sin ωct,
+0.22 sin ωct and -0.22 sin ωct.
• For the Q product modulator, they are +0.821 cos ωct, -0.22 cos
ωct, +0.821 cos ωct and -0.22 cos ωct.
RAJENDRA CHARY 106
 16QAM Transmitter(contd.)
• The linear summer combines the outputs from the I and Q channel
product modulators and produces the 16 output conditions
necessary for 16-QAM.

RAJENDRA CHARY 107

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
• Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band
– Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• One technique combines digital information stream with the
spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR

RAJENDRA CHARY 108

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 109

 Processing gain in DSSS
• Processing Gain in Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a
key parameter that measures how much the signal is "spread" over
a wider bandwidth compared to the original data signal.
• Processing gain (Gp) is the ratio of the spread spectrum signal
bandwidth to the original data signal bandwidth.
• Mathematically, Gp=Rc/Rb, Rc=chip rate(chips/sec),Rb=data rate(bits/sec)
• Gp in dB=10log(Rc/Rb)=20logN , N=2n-1 ,n= [Link] stages

RAJENDRA CHARY 110

 DSSS using BPSK
• A BPSK signal can be represented as
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2fct)
where A = Amplitude of the signal,
d(t) is the data bit which can be 1 or -1
• To produce the DSSS signal, we multiply the preceding by c(t),
which is the PN sequence taking on values of
s(t) = A d(t)c(t) cos(2 fct)

RAJENDRA CHARY 111

 DSSS using BPSK(contd.)
• At the receiver, the incoming signal is multiplied again by c(t).But
c(t)xc(t) is 1 so at the Receiver we can recover the signal as

RAJENDRA CHARY 112

DSSS using BPSK(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 113

DSSS Spectrum

RAJENDRA CHARY 114

 DS-CDMA model
• DS-CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access technique used
in wireless communication.
• In this technique, multiple users share the same frequency band
simultaneously.
• Each user is separated by a unique spreading code (PN sequence
or orthogonal codes like Walsh codes).

RAJENDRA CHARY 115

DS-CDMA model(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 116

 DS-CDMA model(contd.)
• Figure shows a DS-CDMA model with n users, each transmitting
using a different, orthogonal, PN sequence.
• For each user, the data stream to be transmitted di(t) is BPSK
modulated to produce a signal with a bandwidth of Ws and then
multiplied by the spreading code for that user ci(t).
• All of these signals plus noise are received at the receivers antenna.

RAJENDRA CHARY 117

 Applications of DS-CDMA model
• 3G cellular systems (UMTS/W-CDMA, cdma2000)
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Military secure communications
• Satellite communication systems

RAJENDRA CHARY 118

 Problem
• A DSSS uses linear feedback shift registers of 20stages for the
generation of [Link] the processing gain of PN
sequence in dB.
Solution: Given n=20,
N=2n-1=220-1=1048575
Processing gain in dB=20logN
=20log(1048575)
=120.41 dB
RAJENDRA CHARY 119
RAJENDRA CHARY 120
 Conventional receiver
• The Conventional Receiver is the simplest form of a receiver used
in multiuser systems like CDMA, where multiple users transmit
simultaneously using different spreading codes. It is also known as
the Matched Filter Receiver or Single-User Detector.
• In the conventional receiver:
Each user's signal is detected independently, using a matched filter
(i.e., correlator) tuned to that user’s spreading code.
It ignores interference from other users (Multiple Access
Interference, or MAI).
RAJENDRA CHARY 121
Conventional receiver(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 122

 Rake Receiver
• A RAKE receiver is a special type of receiver that picks up the
same signal arriving at slightly different times (because it bounced
off buildings, trees, etc.), and then adds them together to get a
clearer and stronger signal.
• In a multipath environment, if the multiple versions of signal arrive
more than one chip interval apart from each other, the receiver can
recover the signal by correlating the chip sequence with the
dominant incoming signal.

RAJENDRA CHARY 123

 Rake Receiver(contd.)
• The remaining signals are treated as noise.
• However, even better performance can be achieved if the receiver
attempts to recover the signal from multiple paths and then
combine them with suitable delays. This principle is used in rake
receiver.

RAJENDRA CHARY 124

Rake Receiver(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 125

 Rake Receiver(contd.)
• The original binary signal to be transmitted is spread by the XOR
operation with the transmitter’s chipping code.
• The spread spectrum is then modulated for transmission over the
wireless channel.
• Because of multipath effects, the channel generates multiple copies
of the signal, each with a different amount of time delay and with a
different attenuation factors.
• At the receiver, the combined signal is demodulated.

RAJENDRA CHARY 126

 Rake Receiver(contd.)
• The demodulated chip stream is then fed into multiple correlators,
each delayed by a different amount.
• These signals are then combined using weighting factors estimated
from the channel.

RAJENDRA CHARY 127

 Synchronization in CDMA
• Synchronization in CDMA refers to the alignment of the spreading
code sequences between the transmitter and receiver, so the
receiver can correctly despread and decode the intended signal
from among many others.
• Some of the types of synchronization are: chip synchronization, bit
synchronization, frame synchronization, code phrase
synchronization.

RAJENDRA CHARY 128

 Synchronization in CDMA(contd.)
Chip Synchronization:
• Aligns the chip boundaries of the spreading sequence.
• Essential for correct despreading of the signal.
• High precision is required since CDMA chips are very short in duration
(e.g., ~0.8 µs for IS-95).
Bit (Symbol) Synchronization:
• Ensures that the receiver correctly identifies the beginning and end of
each data bit or symbol.
• Necessary for accurate decoding after despreading.

RAJENDRA CHARY 129

 Synchronization in CDMA(contd.)
Frame Synchronization:
•Identifies the start of a frame (a block of bits).
•Important for error correction, voice/data segmentation, and system
control.
Code Phase Synchronization:
•Aligns the phase of the spreading code (pseudo-random noise code)
between sender and receiver.
•Critical for distinguishing between users in CDMA.

RAJENDRA CHARY 130

 Working of synchronization in CDMA
• CDMA uses Pseudo-Noise (PN) codes to spread and despread
signals. For successful communication:
• The receiver must search and match the exact code phase of the
incoming signal.
• A correlator is used to compare incoming signals with time-
shifted versions of the known PN code.
• When a strong correlation is found, synchronization is achieved.

RAJENDRA CHARY 131

 Challenges of synchronization in CDMA
•Multipath Propagation: Causes delayed versions of the signal to
arrive at different times.
•Doppler Shift: Due to motion, the timing of received signals can
vary.
•Weak Signal Detection: In low SNR, finding the correct code
phase becomes harder.

RAJENDRA CHARY 132

 Power Control in CDMA
• Power control in CDMA is the process of dynamically adjusting
the transmission power of each user based on channel conditions
and interference levels, in order to maintain the required signal
quality (SNR/BER) and optimize network performance.
• It reduces near-far problem, improves signal quality for all users,
increases mobile battery life, supports more simultaneous users,
lowers call drop and error rate.

RAJENDRA CHARY 133

 Power Control in CDMA(uplink)
•Mobile sends signal to base station.
•Base station measures the received power.
•If power is too low, base sends “Power Up” command.
•If power is too high, base sends “Power Down” command.
•Mobile adjusts transmit power in small steps (e.g., ±1 dB).

RAJENDRA CHARY 134

 Types of Power Control in CDMA
 Open-Loop Power Control
• Estimates the path loss from base station signal strength.
• Mobile adjusts its power accordingly.
• Fast, but less accurate due to asymmetric uplink/downlink conditions.
 Closed-Loop Power Control
• Base station measures received signal power and sends commands to mobile to
increase or decrease transmit power.
Two Modes:
• Inner Loop (Fast): ~1500 times/sec in IS-95.
• Outer Loop (Slow): Adjusts target SNR or power level based on link quality.
RAJENDRA CHARY 135
 Handoff
• Handoff (also called handover) is the process of transferring an ongoing
call or data session from one base station, access point, or network to
another without interruption as a user moves through a coverage area.
Need of handoff:
• Mobile users move between coverage areas (cells or access points).
• To maintain connection quality (signal strength, speed).
• To prevent call drops, packet loss, or degraded service.
• To balance network load and manage interference.

RAJENDRA CHARY 136

 Types of Handoff
• Hard handoff(Break-Before-Make)
• Soft handoff(Make-Before-Break)
• Softer handoff

RAJENDRA CHARY 137

 Hard handoff
• The existing connection is broken before a new one is established.
• Used in early cellular systems like GSM.
• Short interruption during the transition.
• Simple but may cause dropped calls if handoff fails.

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 Soft handoff
• A soft handoff is a technique in mobile communication,
particularly in CDMA and W-CDMA networks, where a mobile
device is connected to two or more base stations (cells)
simultaneously during a handover.
• This ensures a stronger signal and seamless transition between
cells, preventing dropped calls or interruptions.

RAJENDRA CHARY 139

 Softer Handoff
• A type of soft handoff where the mobile connects to different
sectors of the same base station.

RAJENDRA CHARY 140

RAJENDRA CHARY 141
 Multiuser detection(MUD)
• Multiuser Detection refers to the process of detecting signals from
multiple users simultaneously at a receiver, while minimizing
interference from other users.
• In systems like CDMA, each user is assigned a spreading code, but
because of non-ideal conditions (e.g., non-orthogonal codes, multipath,
asynchrony), signals from different users interfere with one another.
This is called Multiple Access Interference (MAI).
• MUD techniques aim to mitigate MAI and improve overall system
performance by jointly detecting all user signals rather than detecting
each one independently.
RAJENDRA CHARY 142
 Optimum multiuser detector
• The Optimum Multiuser Detector (OMD) is a receiver design that
minimizes the probability of bit error in a multiuser environment—
most notably in systems like Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
• It considers all users simultaneously, unlike traditional single-user
detectors.
• In a multiple access system (like CDMA), all users share the same
bandwidth, the signals of different users interfere with each other,
leading to Multiple Access Interference (MAI).
• The Optimum Multiuser Detector tackles this by jointly detecting all
user data using a global view of the received signal.
RAJENDRA CHARY 143
Optimum multiuser detector(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 144

Optimum multiuser detector(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 145

 Linear multiuser detection
• Linear Multiuser Detection is a practical approach used in multiple
access systems like CDMA to reduce Multiple Access Interference
(MAI) by applying linear transformations to the received signal.
• Unlike the optimum detector (which is nonlinear and
computationally expensive), linear detectors use matrix operations
to separate users' signals efficiently.

RAJENDRA CHARY 146

Linear multiuser detection(contd.)

RAJENDRA CHARY 147

 Linear multiuser detection(contd.)
• The linear multiuser detectors are further classified into matched
filter detector, decorrelator detector, Minimum Mean Square Error
(MMSE) Detector.

RAJENDRA CHARY 148

 Lecture Plan
Lecture no. Date&period no.
1 29/07/2025,P-3
2 29/07/2025,P-4
3 31/07/2025,P-5
4 31/07/2025,P-6
5 05/08/2025,P-3
6 05/08/2025,P-4
7 07/08/2025,P-5
RAJENDRA CHARY 149
RAJENDRA CHARY 150
 Previous Year Questions(A20 Reg Jan 2025)

• What is gold sequence.

• Explain briefly about linear multiuser detection.
• What is spreading sequence
• a)Explain about properties of spreading sequence.
b)With neat sketch, explain about 8QAM technique.
• Explain about detector.

RAJENDRA CHARY 151

 Conclusion of the Unit
• In this unit we studied about:
• Spread Spectrum Communications:
• Spreading sequences- Properties of Spreading Sequences,
Pseudo- noise sequence, Gold sequences, Kasami sequences, Walsh
Sequences, Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor Sequences, Barker
Sequence, Complementary Codes
• Digital Modulation DQPSK ,8PSK, 16PSK, 8QAM, 16QAM.
• Direct sequence spread spectrum:
DS-CDMA Model, Conventional receiver, Rake Receiver ,Synchronization in
CDMA, Power Control, Soft handoff, Multiuser detection – Optimum
multiuser detector, Liner multiuser detection
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RAJENDRA CHARY 153