OSCILLATIONS &

WAVES
SRUTHI N L
[Link]
ASIET,KALADY

PHT 100
ENGINEERING PHYSICS A
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

MODULE 1
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
 Harmonic oscillations
→Damped Harmonic Oscillator(DHO)
→ Forced Harmonic Oscillator(FHO)
 DHO
→Definition
→Differential equation & solution
→Over, under & critically damped oscillation
→Effect of damping
→Quality factor & it’s features
 FHO
→Definition
→Differential Equation- & solution
→Derivation of expressions for amplitude and phase
→Amplitude Resonance-
→Expression for Resonant frequency
→Quality factor and Sharpness of Resonance
→Electrical analogy of mechanical oscillators
 Wave motion-
→Derivation of one dimensional wave equation and its
solution
→Three dimensional wave equation and its solution
(no derivation)
→Distinction between transverse and longitudinal
Waves
→Transverse vibration in a stretched string
→Statement of laws of vibration

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COURSE OUTCOME:-Compute the quantitative aspects of waves

and oscillations in engineering systems.

OSCILLATIONS

Periodic motion:-Any motion which repeats itself identically after a regular interval of
time is called periodic motion. All parameters of motion repeats after a regular
interval.

Eg; Orbital motion of earth around the sun

Swing of a wall clock pendulum
Arms of a clock

→ Period (T):- the smallest time interval after which a periodic motion is repeated is
called time period. Its unit is second(s)
𝑁
If a particle oscillates N times in a time‘t’ seconds, its time period is 𝑡 .

→Frequency (υ):-The number of oscillations per second is called frequency. It’s unit is
Hertz (Hz)

Oscillation:-A periodic motion in which the body as a whole moves to and fro about
its mean position (equilibrium) is called oscillatory motion. Here the restoring force is
due to the weight of the body.

Eg; Simple pendulum, spring-mass system

→Equilibrium position:-It is a fixed point along the path of an oscillator where the net
force acting on the body is zero.

Vibration: - periodic motions with high frequencies are referred to as vibration. Here
the restoring force is mainly due to elastic property of the body.

Eg; Plucked guitar string ,Prongs of a tuning fork, Vibration of atoms/molecules etc

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Note:- All un damped oscillatory motions are always periodic. But all periodic motions
need not be oscillatory. For example, motion of earth around the sun is periodic but
not oscillatory.
Harmonic motion: -The displacement of the particles executing oscillatory motion
that can be expressed in terms of sine or cosine functions are known as harmonic
motion.
Eg: a simple pendulum

1. Free oscillations/un damped oscillations: -

 A freely oscillating object oscillates with constant amplitude under its own
restoring force.
 The total potential and kinetic energy of the object will remain constant.
 The frequency of a freely oscillating body is known as its natural frequency
which depends on elasticity and inertia of the body.
 It occurs when there are no frictional forces like air resistance acting on the
body (ideal case)
 Eg; atomic &molecular vibrations

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FREE AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS

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2. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): -

 It is the simplest type of harmonic motion in which the particle oscillates on a

straight line.
 Definition: -A particle is said to execute SHM, if the restoring force acting on it
is proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium (mean) position and is
always directed towards that position.
F= -kx (Hook’s law)
where k is force constant or spring constant.
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
 The differential equation of SHM is +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x=0
𝒅𝒕𝟐

 Its solution is x=A sin (ɷ𝟎 t+ɸ) OR

x=A cos (ɷ𝟎 t+ɸ)
where A→ amplitude of oscillation
(ɷ𝟎 t+ɸ)→phase constant & ɸ →initial phase/epoch

 Eg; simple pendulum, freely suspended magnet in a uniform magnetic field etc
3. Damped Harmonic Oscillator (DHO): -
 Definition: -A simple harmonic motion under the action of a damping
force/dissipative force is called DHO. Damping forces can be viscosity/friction
etc in mechanical systems, resistance in electronic oscillators,
scattering/absorption in the case of acoustics or optics.
eg; simple pendulum in air, LCR circuit etc

 Damping-The decrease in amplitude, frequency and energy of an oscillator

caused by dissipative forces like friction, viscosity etc is called damping. Such
an oscillator is called damped harmonic oscillator and that motion is damped
harmonic oscillation.

 Damping force: - A force that reduces the velocity & kinetic energy of a moving
body is known as damping force or dissipative force. It is directly proportional to
the velocity of the body and is opposite to its direction. These forces are non-
conservative in nature.
𝑑𝑥
Ie; F= -b , where ‘b’ is the damping coefficient
𝑑𝑡

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 Damping coefficient (b)- It is the damping force per unit velocity. It’s unit is
Nsm-1

[Link] HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

After the completion of this section, you should be able to answer

 Distinguish between free & damped oscillations
 Explain the effect of damping on oscillating systems.
 Compare restoring force and damping force.
 Explain two practical cases of damping.
 Define quality factor of an oscillator. What is its significance?
 With necessary steps & graph, show that overdamped case is aperiodic.
 Compare the three cases of DHO with conditions, examples & graphs.
 Derive the differential equation of damped harmonic oscillator and deduce its
solution. Discuss the possible cases.

Definition: - A simple harmonic motion under the action of a damping

force/dissipative force is called DHO. As a result of damping, the amplitude, frequency
& energy of oscillator decreases. Example for dissipative forces are friction, viscosity
etc.

Differential equation of a damped harmonic oscillator

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Consider the case of a spring motion. A body of mass ‘m’ oscillate under a spring
force constant ‘k’. Let ‘x’ be the displacement of the body from the equilibrium
position. Then forces acting on the body are:-

 Restoring force- When a particle is displaced from its equilibrium position, a

periodic force acts on it, which is directly proportional to the displacement of the
body from the equilibrium position and is always directed towards that position.
Ie, F = -kx

 Damping force-is due to dissipative forces like friction, resistance etc which is
proportional to the velocity and opposite to the direction of motion.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Fα- =-b (Stoke’s law)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So total force,
FNewton = Frestoring + FDamping
𝑑𝑥
F= - kx – b k→ force constant
𝑑𝑡
b→ damping coefficient (unit → Nsm-1)
From Newton’s second law
𝑑2 𝑥
F= ma = m
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ie; m = - kx - b
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
m +b +kx=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Dividing the whole equation by ‘m’
d2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
+ + x=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑏
Substituting =2λ, where λ is the damping factor(unit→s-1) &
𝑚
𝑘
= ɷ𝟐𝟎 , where ɷ0 is the natural frequency(unit→rad/s). Then,
𝑚

𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 ...............................................(E)
+𝟐𝝀 +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x=0
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

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This is the D E of DHO

General Solution of a damped harmonic oscillator
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
We have +𝟐𝝀 𝒅𝒕 + ɷ𝟐𝟎 x=0
𝒅𝒕𝟐
Let us assume that solution of this equation is
X=A 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 …………………………………(1) where A &α are unknown
𝑑𝑥
= Aα𝑒 𝛼𝑡 ……………………………….(2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥
& 𝑑𝑡 2 =A𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 ……………………………..(3)

Substituting (1),(2)& (3) in (E)

A𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 +2λAα 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 +ɷ20 A 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0

A𝑒 𝛼𝑡 [𝛼 2 +2λα+ɷ20 ] = 0

−2λ±√4𝜆2 −4ɷ20
The roots of this equation are α = = - λ ± √𝜆2 − ɷ20
2

(−𝝀+√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 ) (−𝝀−√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 )

The general solution is x = A1𝒆 t + A2𝒆 t……………….(S1)

√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 𝒕 −√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 𝒕

OR, x = 𝒆−𝝀𝒕[A1𝒆 + A2𝒆 ]………………….(S2)

Where A1&A2 are constants.

Classifications
Depending upon the values of damping factor there are 3 cases.

Case1: Over damped (𝝀𝟐 > ɷ𝟐𝟎 )

Features
 It is a high damping case
 It is a non-oscillatory case; it is known as aperiodic
 The displaced body will come to its equilibrium position slowly without any
oscillation.

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Specific solution

[−𝝀+√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 ] 𝒕 [−𝝀−√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 ] 𝒕

General solution x = A1 𝒆 +A2 𝒆 ………………(S1)

The term √𝜆2 − ɷ20 will be a real number.

Let us take √𝜆2 − ɷ20 = β

X=A1𝒆(−𝝀+𝜷)𝒕 + A2 𝒆(−𝝀−𝜷)𝒕
As the two exponents are negative, the displacement ‘x’ decreases exponentially with
time without any oscillation. So the motion is also known as aperiodic.
Eg; a pendulum in a viscous liquid, shock absorber in truck having load etc

Case 2: Critically damped (𝝀𝟐 = ɷ𝟐𝟎 )

Features
 It is a moderate damping case
 It is also non oscillatory & is known as aperiodic
 The displaced body will come to its equilibrium position faster than over
damping, without any oscillation.
Specific solution

(√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 )𝒕 (−√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 )𝒕

Again x= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ( A1𝒆 +A2𝒆 )…………………………(S2)

If 𝜆2 = ɷ20
X=(A1+A2) 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
=B𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
As this solution contain only one constant, it does not satisfy second order differential
equation (E)

So we consider that √𝝀𝟐 − ɷ𝟐𝟎 )≠ 0

ie;√𝝀𝟐 − ɷ𝟐𝟎 ≈ h which is very small

X=𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (A1𝒆𝒉𝒕+A2𝒆−𝒉𝒕)

= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [ A1 (1+ht+……..)+A2 (1-ht+…….)]
=𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [ (A1+A2) +(A1-A2)ht]

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=𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [B+Dt]
 Due to the [B+Dt], the displacement x will be always +ve
 At first the amplitude of oscillation will be high, due to the coefficient [B+Dt].
 But as time elapses, the exponential term will dominate & the body comes to
equilibrium without oscillation, faster than over damped case.
Eg; speedometer-needle deflection
Ammeter, voltmeter etc

Case3: Under damped (𝝀𝟐 < ɷ𝟐𝟎 )

Features
 It is a low damping case where damping force < restoring force
 It is an oscillatory case
 The displaced body will come to its equilibrium position after a number of
oscillations.
Specific solution

(√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 )𝒕 (−√𝝀𝟐 −ɷ𝟐𝟎 )𝒕

Again x = = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ( A1𝒆 +A2𝒆 )…………………………(S2)

When 𝝀𝟐 < ɷ𝟐𝟎 ; √𝝀𝟐 − ɷ𝟐𝟎 will be imaginary

√𝜆2 − ɷ20 =√−(𝜔02 − 𝜆2 ) = iɷ

X= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [A1𝑒 +𝑖ɷ𝑡 + A2𝑒 −𝑖ɷ𝑡 ]

= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [A1 (cos ɷ𝑡 +isin ɷ𝑡) +A2 (cos ɷ𝑡 -isin ɷ𝑡)]
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [(A1+A2) cos ɷ𝑡+i(A1-A2) sin ɷ𝑡]
But the displacement ‘x’ should be a real quantity.
So (A1+A2) & i(A1-A2) must be real.
For that, take (A1+A2) =𝑎0 sin ɸ&
i(A1-A2) =𝑎0 cos ɸ

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so, X=𝑎0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [cos ɷ𝑡 sin ɸ+sin ɷ𝑡 cos ɸ]

X=𝒂𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕sin(ɷt+ɸ)

It is the solution of a damped harmonic oscillator with

amplitude A=𝑎0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ,

angular frequency, ɷ = √ɷ20 − 𝜆2 ,

phase constant=ɸ,
2𝜋
Time period T=
√ɷ20 −𝜆2

Eg; Bob of a simple pendulum

Excited tuning fork, Spring –block system etc
Time- displacement graph

Example showing degrees of damping

Consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once open.
 Un-damped or Simple Harmonic:
Will swing back and forth forever at a particular resonant frequency
 Under-damped:

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Swing back and forth with decreasing amplitude of the swing until it comes
to a stop
 Critically damped:
Return to closed as quickly as possible without oscillating
 Over-damped:
Return to closed without oscillating but more slowly depending on how
over damped it is.

Practical cases of damping

 Un-damped or Simple Harmonic: -Will swing back and forth forever at a
particular resonant frequency.
Eg; Simple pendulum in a frictionless medium
 Under-damped: -It is oscillatory, but amplitude decreases with each cycle.
Eg; Simple pendulum in air, vibrating prongs of a tuning fork
 Critically damped: -Not oscillatory, body comes to equilibrium without
oscillation.
Eg; Speedometer, guitar string, shock absorber
 Over-damped: - Not oscillatory, damping slower than critically damped case.
Eg; simple pendulum in a viscous liquid, LCR circuit.

Effect of damping

a. Amplitude of oscillation decreases exponentially with time A= A0 e-λt

b. Frequency of oscillation will be less than natural frequency.ɷ𝟎 →ɷ = √ɷ𝟐𝟎 − 𝝀𝟐

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c. Energy of oscillation is dissipated in each cycle according to the equation

The energy loss rate of an oscillator E= E0𝒆−𝟐𝝀𝒕
𝒕
−
Or E = E0 𝒆 𝜾

1
where τ is known as relaxation time & τ =
2𝜆
1
d. Time period of oscillation (T) increases with time as T= 𝜐
Relaxation time: - it is the time taken by an oscillator to reduce its average total
energy to 1/e or (37%) of its initial energy.

Quality Factor (Q factor)

Definition 1: It is 2π times the energy stored to the energy dissipated per cycle of an
oscillator.

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝟐𝝅𝑬 𝟐𝝅𝝉

Q = 2π × = 𝑬𝑻⁄ =
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝝉 𝑻

Q factor = ɷ𝟎 τ

𝑸
Relation between Q factor and number of oscillation is N =
𝟐𝝅

Features of Q factor

 It is a measure of lack of damping of an oscillator.

 It is a measure of ability of the system to produce large number of oscillations
before coming to rest.
 Q-factor is a dimensionless quantity.
 A system with high quality factor means it has very small damping.

oscillations within relaxation [Link]

𝑸
 A system can produce
𝟐𝝅

HAR

ONIC OSCILLATO

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IIFORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR / DRIVEN

HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

After the completion of this section, you should be able to answer

 Define amplitude resonance with examples.
 Derive the expression for resonance frequency.
 Define Q-factor at resonance. How it is connected to frequency of oscillation.
 What is meant by sharpness of resonance. Give example for sharp resonance
case.
 Distinguish between free and forced oscillations.
 Frame the differential equation of a damped oscillator which is constantly
given an external pull to continue oscillation. Also derive its solution.

Definition:- Harmonic motions executed by a body under the action of an applied

force are called forced oscillation or driven oscillation. The amplitude of the body will
remain constant with a frequency equal to that of the driver.

Eg; sonometer wire’s vibration under the action of a tuning fork.

A swing which is frequently given a pull to continue oscillation.
Here two frequencies are involved: -
 The natural frequency (ɷ0 ) of the oscillator (eg; sonometer wire)
 The driver frequency (𝑝) of the external force(eg; tuning fork)

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Differential equation of a forced harmonic oscillator

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ subjected to a periodic force 𝐹0 sin pt, where ‘p’ is the
angular frequency of applied force.

The forces acting on FHO are

 Restoring force- which is directly proportional to the displacement of the body

from the equilibrium position and is always directed towards that position.
Ie, F = -kx
 Damping force-is due to dissipative forces like friction, resistance etc which is
proportional to the velocity and opposite to the direction of motion.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
F α - 𝑑𝑡 = - b 𝑑𝑡

 Driving force- is external force exerted periodically to overcome damping and

maintain a constant velocity.

FNewton = Frestoring + FDamping + Fdriving

𝑑𝑥
F = - kx- b + F0sin 𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥
But Fnewton =m
𝑑𝑡 2

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
m +b +kx = F0sin 𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹0
+ + x= sin 𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚

𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+𝟐𝝀 +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x =𝒇𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑𝒕……………………………………………………(E)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

It is the differential equation of an FHO

This equation has a sum of two solutions

(1) With RHS zero called Transient response which is the solution of under damped
case

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(2) With RHS 𝑓0 sin 𝑝𝑡 called the steady state solution of FHO

Steady state solution of FHO

𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+𝟐𝝀 𝒅𝒕 +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x =𝒇𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑𝒕 is the differential equation of FHO.
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Let us assume that the body oscillates with a frequency equal to the source frequency
but with a phase difference Ɵ

Displacement is given by

x=Asin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)………………………………….(1)

𝑑𝑥
=A𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)……………………………….(2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥
= -Ap2sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)…………………………….(3)
𝑑𝑡 2

Substituting (1), (2) & (3) in eqn (E)

-Ap2sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+2λA𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+ɷ𝟐𝟎 Asin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)=𝑓0 sin 𝑝𝑡

Simply adding and subtracting θ on RHS

-Ap2sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+2λA𝑝 pcos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+ɷ𝟐𝟎 Asin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ) = 𝑓0 sin[(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ) + Ɵ]

-Ap2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+2λA𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)+ɷ𝟐𝟎 Asin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ) = 𝑓0 sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ) cos Ɵ+𝑓0 cos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ) sin Ɵ

Equating coefficients of sin(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ)&cos(𝑝𝑡 − Ɵ), we get

(ɷ𝟐𝟎 − 𝑝2 ) A=𝑓0 cos Ɵ………………………………(4)

2λAp =𝑓0 sin Ɵ……………………………….(5)

Squaring & adding (4) &(5)

2
(ɷ𝟐𝟎 − 𝑝2 )2A2=𝑓02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ɵ

2
4𝜆2 𝐴2 𝑝2 =𝑓02 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ

𝑓02 = [(ɷ𝟐𝟎 − 𝑝2 )2+4 𝜆2 𝑝2 ]𝐴2

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𝒇𝟎
Amplitude, A = ………………..…(6)
√[(ɷ𝟐𝟎 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐+𝟒 𝝀𝟐 𝒑𝟐 ]

5 2𝜆𝑝
Simply dividing tan Ɵ =
4 ɷ20 −𝑝2

𝟐𝝀𝒑
Phase difference, Ɵ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )………………..(7)
ɷ𝟐𝟎 −𝒑𝟐

Depending on the values of driving frequency (p) & natural frequency (ɷ0 ), three cases
are there.

Case1: low driving frequency, p<<ɷ𝟎

Then, in equation (6) neglect p2& 4λ2p2

𝑓0 𝐹0 𝑘 𝐹0
A= = / = = a constant……………………………………………(1)
ɷ20 𝑚 𝑚 𝑘

2𝜆𝑝
Ɵ = tan−1 ( )
ɷ20 −𝑝2

As denominator is greater than that of numerator,

≈ tan−1(0) ≈ 0

 The body oscillates with nearly constant amplitude under low driving frequency.
 The applied force and amplitude of oscillation are almost in phase.

Case2: high driving frequency, p>> ɷ𝟎

If the frequency of the applied force is very large as compared to natural frequency, we
neglect ɷ𝟐𝟎 and 4λ2p2 in eqn (6)

𝑓0 𝐹0
A= =
𝑝2 𝑚𝑝2

2𝜆𝑝 −2𝜆𝑝 −2𝜆

Ɵ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1( ) = tan−1( ) = tan−1(−0) = -tan−1 0 = π
ɷ20 −𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

 The amplitude of oscillation is not a constant. It varies with applied frequency.

 The applied frequency and amplitude of oscillation are out of phase by π.

Case3:Amplitude Resonance, when p = ɷ𝟎

Definition:-It is a special case of forced vibration, where the amplitude of vibration is

maximum, if the natural frequency of the body is same as the applied frequency.

The amplitude of FHO is

𝒇𝟎
A= ……………..(1) where p → driving frequency
√[((ɷ𝟐𝟎 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐+𝟒 𝝀𝟐 𝒑𝟐 ]

ɷ0 → natural frequency.
When P= ɷ0 ; the amplitude will be maximum A=Amax
For amplitude to be maximum, in the above equation denominator should be
minimum.

𝑑
Ie [(ɷ20 - 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝜆2 𝑝2 ] = 0
𝑑𝑝

2(ɷ20 - 𝑝2 ) × -2p + 8𝜆2 p = 0

-4p(ɷ20 - 𝑝2 )+ 8𝜆2 p =0
4p [ −(ɷ20 - 𝑝2 )+ 2𝜆2 ] =0
Or, ɷ20 − 𝑝2 = 2𝜆2 …………………………….(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
𝑓0
Amax =
√4𝜆4 + 4𝜆2 𝑝2
𝑓0
Amax = ………………………….(3)
2𝜆√𝜆2 + 𝑝2

At resonance, damping will be low

𝜆2 can be neglected, then in equation (3) ɷ20 = 𝑃𝑅2
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝟎 𝝉 1
Resonance amplitude Amax= = where =τ
𝟐𝝀ɷ𝟎 ɷ𝟎 2𝜆

𝒇𝟎
Resonance frequency ɷ𝟎 =
𝟐𝛌𝐀𝐦𝐚𝐱

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

2𝜆𝑝 𝜋
θ = tan−1 = tan−1 ∞ = 2
0

 The amplitude of oscillation is governed by damping

𝜋
 The displacement x lags behind the applied force by a phase 2

Eg; tuning of a radio or transistor, Musical instruments, Resonance column,

Sonometer

Applications

Desirable Resonance

 Electrical Resonance-Tuning of Radio & TV , mobile phones (Using resonance of

LRC circuit)
 Acoustic resonance- A musical note can break a glass.
 Optical resonance-Production of LASER
 Magnetic resonance-Human ear nerves pick up a range of frequencies to be sent
to brain & MRI used in medical field.
Undesirable Resonances

 Bridge vibrations while vehicles moving on it or due to other reasons (Tacoma

Narrows bridge collapse due to wind)
 Tall building vibrations (major disasters of earthquakes are due to resonance)
 Soldiers used to route step on bridges.

Quality factor at resonance

Definition 2: It is the ratio of amplitude at resonance to the amplitude at zero driving

frequency.

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓0 /2𝜆ɷ0 ɷ0
Q= = =
𝐴𝑎𝑡 𝑝=0 𝑓0 /ɷ20 2𝜆

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

Q = ɷ𝟎 τ ɷ0 = natural frequency, τ= relaxation time

𝑬𝟎 E = final energy , E0 = initial energy
E =
𝝉

Features
 Higher Q → Sharper resonance
 Low Q → Flatter resonance
 Q-factor α Selectivity
1
 Q-factor α 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Examples of quality factors Q

 Human Vocal Tract :3
2
 Resonance Radio Circuit :10
3
 Violin String :10
4
 Microwave Resonator/Tuning Fork :10

Sharpness of resonance

Definition 1: The rate of fall in amplitude of an oscillator with the change of applied
frequency on each side of the resonant frequency is called sharpness of resonance.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

Definition 2: It is the ratio of resonant frequency to the bandwidth of an oscillator. It

is a parameter used to compare the quality of various resonant systems. The
amplitude of any oscillator will be maximum at its resonance.

ɷ0
Sharpness =
2∆ɷ

ɷ0 𝐿
Also = for an LCR circuit
𝑅

 For a sonometer, as there is low damping, sharp resonance curve is obtained-

which indicate high quality factor.
 For a resonance column, as there high damping, flat resonance curve is
obtained-which indicate low quality factor.

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY TO MECHANICAL OSCILLATOR

After the completion of this section, you should be able to answer,

1. Show that an LCR circuit is an analogy to forced harmonic oscillator.

2. Show that an LCR circuit can be considered as an analogy to damped harmonic
oscillator.
3. List any six points to compare electrical and mechanical oscillators.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

LCR CIRCUIT AS AN EXAMPLE OF DHO

An LCR circuit is an example for both DHO & FHO

Consider a series LCR circuit with no external voltage.

Total potential difference= total emf

𝑄
Potential drop across a capacitor, V =𝐶 Q=CV

Potential difference across the resistor V = IR Ohm’s law

𝑑𝐼
Induced emf in the inductance is , E = -L𝑑𝑡

Potential drop in a circuit = total emf

So,
𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑄
+IR = -L𝑑𝑡 current I = 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
2
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 +R 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 = 0

𝟐
𝒅𝑸 𝑹 𝒅𝑸 𝟏 𝑸 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+ + =0 +𝟐𝝀 +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x=0
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝑪 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
→

𝑅 1
Comparing 2λ = & ɷ0 =
𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
−𝑅𝑡
It is similar to D.E of DHO and its solution will be Q=𝑄0 𝑒 2𝐿 sin(ɷt+ɸ)

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

LCR CIRCUIT AS AN EXAMPLE OF FHO

If an external emf V= 𝑉0 sin ɷ𝑡 is applied to the LCR circuit, then

→
𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝑸 𝑹 𝒅𝑸 𝟏 𝑸 𝑽𝟎 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑭𝟎
+ + = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ɷ𝒕 +𝟐𝝀 +ɷ𝟐𝟎 x = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝑪 𝑳 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒎

Comparison between electrical & mechanical oscillator

Mechanical oscillator Electrical oscillator

There are mechanical and electrical oscillators which are examples of DHO
& FHO. Equations of motion of both of them are second order differential
equations.
2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐹0 𝑑𝑄
+2𝜆 𝑑𝑡 +ɷ x =𝑚 sin 𝑝𝑡
2 𝑅 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑄
+𝐿 + =
𝑉0
sin ɷ𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐶 𝐿

Displacement ,x Charge ,Q
Mass ,m Inductance, L
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑄
Velocity ,v = 𝑑𝑡 Electric current ,I= 𝑑𝑡

Damping coefficient ,b Electrical resistance ,R

Force constant, k Reciprocal of capacitance,
1
𝐶
1 1
Potential energy = 2 kx2 Energy stored in a capacitor = 2 CV2
1 1
Kinetic energy= 2 mv2 Energy of an inductor= 2 LI2

1 𝑘 1 1
Resonant frequency = 2𝜋 √𝑚 Resonant frequency = 2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS FROM OSCILLATIONS (LEVEL 3)

1. The frequency of a tuning fork is 250 Hz and its Q-factor is 4×104. Find the
1 𝑡ℎ
relaxation time. Also calculate the time after which its energy becomes of
10

its initial un damped value.

2. A damped oscillator of mass 1gram has force constant 10N/m and damping
Factor 1s-1. Calculate the angular frequency without damping and with damping.
3. The Q- factor of an un damped harmonic oscillator of frequency 500Hz is 7×104.
Calculate the time in which its energy reduces to (1/e) of its initial energy. Also
find the number of oscillations in the relaxation time.
4. The amplitude of an un damped harmonic oscillator reduces to (1/10) th of its
Initial value after 100 oscillations. Its time period is 1.15s. Calculate the
damping factor and relaxation time.
5. In the case of an FHO, the amplitude of vibration increases from 0.02mm to a
value 5mm at the frequency 100 Hz. Find i) Q-factor of the system ii) damping
constant iii) relaxation time.
6. Considering the quality factor of sonometer wire of frequency 260Hz as 2000,
1
Calculate the time in which the amplitude decreases to of its initial value.
𝑒2

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

WAVES
After the completion of this topic, students should be able to answer
1. Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.
2. State the laws of transverse vibrations of a stretched string.
3. Define phase and path length of a wave. Also give the relation between them.
4. What is wave vector and wave velocity. Give the expression connecting these
two.
5. Explain the terms amplitude, frequency, wavelength, time period & phase of a
wave.
6. Explain the terms Wave number, angular frequency & wave velocity. Also give
the relation between them.
7. Derive the differential equation of one dimensional wave and deduce its
solution.
8. Derive the expression for frequency of transverse vibrations in a stretched string

Wave is the propagation of disturbance from place to place in a regular and organised
way. It transfers energy and momentum.

Basic types: -

 Mechanical Waves-It is usually produced by oscillation of matter. It requires a

medium for its propagation like sound waves.
 Non-mechanical waves- which do not require a medium like electromagnetic
waves. They can propagate as longitudinal, transverse and surface waves.
Based on dimension of propagation

[Link]

Longitudinal Transverse
The particles of the medium vibrate The particles of the medium vibrate
parallel to the direction of propagation perpendicular to the direction of
of wave. propagation of wave.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

They consist of regions of compression They consist of crests and troughs.

and rarefaction.
They cannot be polarised. They can be polarised

Eg; sound waves in air, p-type earth Eg; light waves, vibrations on a guitar
quakes ,waves on a slinky string etc

Important terminologies related to waves

PROPERTY DEFINITION SYMBOL MEASURED IN

Amplitude It is the magnitude of maximum A meters(m)
displacement of particles of the medium
from their equilibrium position.
Maximum displacement can be in the
positive direction or negative direction.
Wavelength It is the shortest distance between two λ meters(m)
points with same phase of vibration.
OR,
It is the minimum distance between two
consecutive troughs/crests.

Frequency It is the number of cycles passing υ Hertz

through a particular point in one
second.
Time period It is the time taken by the wave to T seconds(s)
complete one oscillation T=
𝟏
𝝊

Relation between velocity, frequency & wavelength is v = ʋλ

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

 Phase(ɸ) & path length(λ) of a wave: - The state of a wave represented in terms
of angle is known as its phase& the state of a wave represented in terms of
wavelength is path length.

The relation between phase difference & path difference is

𝟐𝝅
Phase difference ɸ = ×Path difference
𝝀

 Wave number/Wave vector(k):- It is 2π times the number of waves that can be

accommodated per unit length. Its unit is rad/m or simply m-1.
𝟐𝝅
k=
𝝀

 Angular frequency (ɷ):- It is the angular displacement of the wave per unit time

𝟐𝝅
ɷ= 𝑻
=2πʋ

 Wave velocity (v):- The displacement of the disturbance in unit time is called
the wave velocity

ɷ
v=
𝒌

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

DERIVE ONE DIMENSIONAL WAVE EQUATION AND ITS SOLUTION

Consider a rope stretched at two ends and plucked at the middle. Then a wave will move
along the rope in ‘x’ direction. Let its velocity be ‘v’. The displacement of each point on
the rope at any instant ‘t’ can be

2𝜋
y = A sin (vt-x)……………………………..(1)
𝜆

Differentiating eqn(1) w.r.t time

𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑣
= Acos (vt-x)×
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆

2𝜋𝑣 2𝜋
= Acos (vt-x)………………………...(2)
𝜆 𝜆

Again differentiating w.r.t ‘t’

2
𝑑𝑦 −4𝜋2 𝑣 2 2𝜋
= A sin (vt-x)…………………….(3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜆2 𝜆

In order to get the value of compression, differentiate eqn(1) w.r.t ‘x‘ twice

𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋
=- Acos (vt-x)……………………………(4)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆

2
𝑑𝑦 4𝜋2 2𝜋
=- Asin (vt-x)………………………….(5)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆2 𝜆

From (2) &(4)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=-v
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

2 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
From (3)&(6) = 𝑣2 2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥

𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝒚
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐
…………………………..(6)

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝒚
 In three dimension it is + + =
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
Where + + = 𝛁 𝟐 ( Laplacian operator)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐

𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝒚
𝛁 y=
𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

SOLUTION OF ONE DIMENSIONAL WAVE EQUATION

If we know the differential equation of a ID wave, we can solve it by variable

separable method to find the exact form of its solution ‘y’

Let the solution of ID wave equation be of the form y(x,t) =X(x) T(t)………..(7)

𝑑2 𝑋 1 𝑑2 𝑇
Substituting (7) in (6) →T = X
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡 2

Dividing the whole equation by XT

1 𝑑2 𝑋 1 𝑑2 𝑇
=
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑇𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Here L.H.S is a function of only ‘x’ & R.H.S is a function of only ‘t’.

Hence each side must be equal to a constant –k2

1 𝑑2 𝑋 𝑑2 𝑋 𝑑2 𝑋
So, = -k2 → = -k2X → +k2X = 0………………………(8)
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

1 𝑑2 𝑇 𝑑2 𝑇 𝑑2 𝑇
& = -k2 → = -k2Tv2 → +k2Tv2 = 0……………………(9)
𝑇𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

But k2v2 =ɷ2

𝑑2 𝑇
So eqn (9) becomes + ɷ2 𝑇= 0 ……………………………………..(10)
𝑑𝑡 2

Here eqn (8) & (10) are the standard D.E with solution

X(x) = C 𝑒 ±𝑖𝑘𝑥 &T(t) = C 𝑒 ±𝑖ɷ𝑡

Therefore, the solution of ID wave eqn is

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

y(x,t) = Constant 𝒆𝒊(𝒌𝒙±ɷ𝒕+𝝓)

y(x,t) = A 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 ± ɷ𝒕 + 𝝓)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
y(x,t) = A𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝒙 ± 𝐭 + 𝛟) where ϕ → initial phase
𝝀 𝑻

If kx & ɷ𝑡 are of opposite sign →the wave propagate along +x axis

If kx & ɷ𝑡 are of same sign →the wave propagate along -x axis

 Solution of 3D wave eqn will be

y(r,t) = Constant 𝒆𝒊(𝒌.𝒓±ɷ𝒕+𝝓)

TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS ON A STRETCHED STRING- EXAMPLE OF

1DIMENSIONAL WAVE EQUATION
Derivation of velocity and frequency of transverse vibrations on a stretched
string

Consider a long uniform string of length ‘l’ stretched between two points A &B by a
tension ‘T’. Let it be plucked at the center and let free so that transverse vibrations will
setup which are simple harmonic also.

 Let the small element AB has a length ∆x

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

 Let ‘M’ be the linear mass density (mass per unit length) of the string
 The magnitude of the tension will be same everywhere and it will act tangentially
at every point.
 At points A & B, tension acts in opposite directions and make angles
Ɵ1 &Ɵ2 respectively with the horizontal.

Resultant vertical component of force on the small element AB is

Fy = Tsin Ɵ2 - Tsin Ɵ1

Resultant horizontal component of force Fx = Tcos Ɵ2 – T cos Ɵ1

The force tending to bring any element back to its equilibrium position is the vertical
component .ie; F=Fy

For small angles sin Ɵ1 ≈ tan Ɵ1 &sin Ɵ2 ≈ tan Ɵ2 ,

So F = T (tan Ɵ2 - tan Ɵ1 )……………………………………..(1)

𝑑𝑦
We know that slope of the curve at any point is = tan Ɵ
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
So tan Ɵ1 = |x
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
&tan Ɵ2 = |x+∆x
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Equation (1) becomes → F = T[ |x+∆x - |x ]…………………(2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

According to Newton’s law force= mass × acceleration

Force on the element AB of length ∆x is, F = mass of element AB ×acceleration

𝑑2 𝑦
= M∆x × ……………….(3)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Equating (2) & (3) → M∆x × = T[ |x+∆x - |x ]
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦 |x+∆x − 𝑑𝑥 |x
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 𝑑𝑡 2 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
R H S is the rate of change of w.r.t x ie
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
So = ……………………..(4)
𝑇 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 2

This equation is similar to 1D wave equation. Hence it is proved that transverse

vibrations on a stretched string are example to 1D wave.

𝑀 𝟏
Comparing eqn (4) with 1D wave eqn (6) =
𝑇 𝒗𝟐

So transverse vibration of a stretched string can be given by

1 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= OR = 𝑣2
𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Velocity of vibrations on a stretched string

1 𝑀
We have = or 𝑻 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑣2 𝑇
Velocity, v = √ =√
𝑴 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

 Fundamental frequency/ 1st harmonic frequency

If the total string is vibrating with only one anti node & 2 fixed nodes
𝜆
then l = → λ= 2l
2

Velocity = frequency ×wavelength → v = ʋλ = 2lʋ

𝑇
√𝑀 = 2lʋ Frequency, ʋ =
𝟏
√
𝑻
𝟐𝒍 𝑴

l→ length of vibrating segment

T→ tension on the string

M→ linear mass density (mass per unit length)

 2nd harmonic/1st overtone

Frequency= 2×fundamental frequency
So
𝒏 𝑻
general equation ʋ = √
𝟐𝒍 𝑴

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

n= 1 is fundamental frequency/ 1st harmonic

n=2 is 2nd harmonic/1st overtone & so on

LAWS OF TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS OF A STRETCHED STRING

𝟏 𝑻
Frequency, υ= √
𝟐𝒍 𝑴

Law of length: - The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is

inversely proportional to the length of the vibrating segment, provided tension
and linear density are constants.

Law of tension: - The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is

directly proportional to the square root of the tension of the vibrating segment,
provided the length and linear density are constants.

Law of linear mass density: - The fundamental frequency of vibration of

stretched string is inversely proportional to the square root of the linear mass
density of the vibrating segment, provided the length and tension are constants

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS FROM WAVES (LEVEL 3)

Waves

1. A transverse wave on a stretched string is described by

y(x,t)=2 sin(20t+0.021x+ᴨ/6) where x and y are in cm and t is in second.
Obtain (1)Amplitude (2)Initial phase (3)speed (4)frequency
2. A transverse wave on a stretched string is described by y(x,t) = 4.0 sin⁡
( 25t+0.016x+π/3) where ‘x’ & ‘y’ are in cm and ‘t’ in second. Find
(i)Speed (ii) amplitude (iii) frequency (iv) initial phase
3. Equation of a transverse wave travelling along a string is y =4 sin π (0.010x-
2.0t) where x & y are in cm & t in second. Find (i) Wavelength (ii) amplitude

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

(iii) frequency (iv)initial phase

4. The equation of a transverse vibration of a stretched string is given by
Y= 1.5 ×10-3sin⁡[(2π/8)x - 80πt] where x is measured in meters & t in seconds.
Evaluate (i) amplitude (ii) wavelength (iii) frequency (iv)velocity.
5. The equation of transverse vibrations of a stretched string is given by
y = 3 sin3π ( x/30 - t/0.02) where t is in second, y & x are in cm. Find
(i) amplitude (ii) wave vector (iii) frequency (iv) period (v) wavelength (vi) velocity
of wave.
6. A wave is represented by y= 3×10-3cos (8.4×1013 t +2.8×105z) Vm-1.
Compute (i) amplitude (ii) frequency (iii) wavelength (iv) wave velocity
7. Find the equation of a wave of amplitude 2 cm, period 0.5s and velocity 200
cm/s moving along the positive x-axis.
8. A piece of wire 50 cm long is stretched by a load of 2.5 kg & has a mass of
1.44g. Find the frequency of the second harmonic.
9. A string when stretched by a weight of 4kg gives a frequency of 256 Hz. What
weight will produce a frequency twice the above frequency?
10. A wave of wavelength 30cm is travelling through a 300m long wire whose
mass is 1 5kg. If the wire is under tension of 1kN, compute the speed and
frequency of the wave.
11. A sitar wire is under the tension 40N and length of the bridge is 80cm.A
10 meter sample of that wire has mass 1.2g. Find the speed and fundamental
frequency of transverse wave on that wire.
12. The frequency of a tuning fork is 200Hz. If the quality factor Q = 5 x 104
find the time after which its amplitude becomes 1/2 of its initial value

13. The frequency of a tuning fork is 200Hz. If its quality factor is 8 x104 find
the time after which its energy becomes 1/10th of its initial value
14. Calculate the fundamental frequency of a string of 1 m long & mass 2g
when stretched by a weight of 4 kg.
15. A uniform steel wire has length 10m and mass 2 kg. Find the Tension in
the string if the speed of transverse wave on the wire is 340m/s

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS ASIET SRUTHI N L

16. A string of mass 0.65 kg is stretched between two supports 30 m apart. If

the tension in the string is 160 N, find the velocity of the wave in the string?
How long will a pulse take to travel from one support to the other

REFERENCES

 A text book of Engineering Physics –Nahari & Dominic

 Engineering Physics-Dr. B Premlet
 Engineering [Link]
 A text book of Engineering Physics- Devraj Singh
 Web resources

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