Chapter 3

Analysis of strain

3.1 Deformation
In a rigid body for all possible motion of it, the distances between any pair of particles
of it remain constant for all times. A deformable body is that in which the distance
between any two particles of it under the influence of external effect changes. Thus
when the relative position of points in a continuous body is altered, we say that the body
is strained. The change in the relative position of points is called deformation.

The deformations which are recovered after the stress field has been removed are called
elastic deformation. In this case, the continuum completely recovers its original config-
uration.

Here we will describe all motions and deformations by expressing positions of points
in both undeformed and deformed solids as components in a Cartesian reference frame
(which is also taken to be an inertial frame). Thus xi will denote components of the
position vector of a material particle before deformation and Xi (xk ) will be components
of its position vector after deformation.

Mathematically, we describe a deformation as a one-to-one mapping which transforms

points from the reference configuration of a solid to the deformed configuration. More
specifically, let ϵi be three numbers specifying the position of some points in the un-
deformed solid (these could be the three components of position vector in a Cartesian

51
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

coordinate system).

As the solid deforms, each the value of the coordinates change to different numbers. We
can write this in general form as

ηi = fi (ϵi , t). (3.1.1)

This is called deformation mapping.

3.2 Method of description

When analyzing the deformation or motion of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary
to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time. There are two
methods of analyzing the properties of the deformation, viz.

(i) Lagrangian or material method

(ii) Eulerian or spatial method.

3.2.1 Lagrangian description or material method

In the material or Lagrangian method, our object of study is material points of a con-
tinuum body. In this method, we identity individual material points and describe the
motion of each individual material point of fixed identity for all time by following its
motion throughout its course. In this approach, individual material points are possessed
with physical properties, which may be changed in two ways.

(a) They change as we pass from one material point to another and

(b) they change as time changes for a fixed material point.

In other words, these properties are considered as functions of time and data which iden-
tify the material points. These are normally denoted by upper-case variables X, Y and
Z and are used to label material particles. For such data, we usually take the rectangular
Cartesian coordinates X1 , X2 , X3 of the position of a material point of the continuum
body in its initial deformed state. We identify the given material point by (X1 , X2 , X3 ).

52
3.2. Method of description

It is given a fixed identity by specifying its initial position. All physical properties as-
sociated with this material point will then the functions of X1 , X2 , X3 and time t. If
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) be the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of this position, then

xi = xi (X1 , X2 , X3 , t), i = 1, 2, 3 .

This equation describes motion of the material point completely in material method giv-
ing the subsequent position at time t. The coordinates X1 , X2 , X3 are independent coor-
dinates and are called material coordinates or Lagrangian coordinates, whereas x1 , x2 , x3
are dependent coordinates and are called spatial coordinates.

3.2.2 Eulerian description or spatial method

In the spatial or Eulerian method, our object of study strictly speaking, is not moving
material points but fixed spatial point. We identify the spatial points and describe the
motion of the medium at each spatial point at different times without considering the
whereabouts of individual material points. We focus our attention on a fixed spatial
point in space occupied by different material points at different times and observe that
changes of various properties are taking place at the spatial point. In this approach, the
physical properties change in two ways.

(a) When we pass from one spatial point to another point and

(b) with time at a fixed spatial point.

If a material point which was at a position (X1 , X2 , X3 ) in the undeformed state at

t = 0 happens to occupy the position (x1 , x2 , x3 ) at subsequent time t, then coordinates
x1 , x2 , x3 identify the spatial point in the deformed state. The physical properties will
be functions of (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and time t. In particular,

Xi = Xi (x1 , x2 , x3 , t), i = 1, 2, 3 ,

which traces the material point occupying spatial position (x1 , x2 , x3 ).

The distinction between material and spatial description is basic, in the former X1 , X2 ,

53
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

X3 , t are independent variables whereas in the latter x1 , x2 , x3 , t are independent vari-

ables. An elastic solid has undeformed state to which it always return whenever loads are
removed. To describe this property of elasticity, the undeformed state must be marked
by identifying material points. Thus material description is natural for elastic body. On
the other hand, the fluid has no past undeformed configuration. The response of the
fluid is determined solely by instantaneous values of time rates of deformation. For this
reason, it is natural to use spatial description for fluid.

3.3 Displacement
A change in the configuration of a continumm body results in a displacement. The dis-
placement of a body has two components, a rigid body displacement and a deformation
. A rigid body displacement consists of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the
body about an axis without changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the change
of its configuration and orientation as well as in shape.

The displacement of a typical material point from its position (X1 , X2 , X3 ) in the unde-
formed state at t = 0 to its position (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in the deformed state at time t is defined
by
ui = xi − Xi , i = 1, 2, 3 .

In the material description, ui and xi are regarded as functions of X1 , X2 , X3 and t so

that displacement

ui (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) = xi (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) − Xi .

In the spatial description, ui and Xi are regarded as functions of x1 , x2 , x3 and t so that

displacement
ui (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = xi − Xi (x1 , x2 , x3 , t) .

54
3.4. Deformation gradients, Finite strain tensor

3.4 Deformation gradients, Finite strain tensor

The deformation gradient is the fundamental measure of deformation. It is a second
order tensor which maps line elements in the reference configuration into line elements
in the current configuration.

3.4.1 Lagrangian finite strain tensor (Change in the length of a line

element in material method)

Consider a material line element P0 Q0 , joining a pair of neighbouring points P0 , Q0 of

length dL oriented in the direction N = (N1 , N2 , N3 ) in the initial underformed region
B0 at time t = 0.

X3 Q(x+dx)
i i

dl
R(x+
i δ
x)i
θ

P(x)
i

dx)i
Q0(x+
i
+
)
δx i
R 0(x i B
dL Θ
P0 (X)
i
O X2

B0

X1

If P0 has coordinates (X1 , X2 , X3 ) and Q0 has coordinates (X1 + dX1 , X2 + dX2 , X3 +

dX3 ) with respect to an orthogonal set of coordinate axes fixed in space, then

dL2 = dX12 + dX22 + dX32

= dXi · dXi

= δij · dXi · dXj , (3.4.1)

and
dXi
Ni = , (3.4.2)
dL

55
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

where δij is a Kronecker delta defined by


1, if i = j

δij =
0, if i ̸= j .


When the body undergoes deformation, the same material points which lie on P0 Q0 at
t = 0 will lie on a new line element P Q of length dl oriented in the direction (n1 , n2 , n3 )
in current region B at time t.

If P has coordinates x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and Q has coordinates (x1 +dx1 , x2 +dx2 , x3 +dx3 )
with respect to the same fixed set of coordinate axes, then

dl2 = dx21 + dx22 + dx23

= dxk · dxk

= δkl dxk dxl (3.4.3)

and
dxi
ni = . (3.4.4)
dl
In material method, the deformation is characterized by the equation

xk = xk (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) . (3.4.5)

Since xk + dxk are coordinates of Q at the same time t, thus

∂xk ∂xk ∂xk

dxk = dX1 + dX2 + dX3
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂xk
= dXj
∂Xj
∂xk
= dXi
∂Xi
= xk,i dXi . (3.4.6)

∂xk
The quantity xk,i = ∂Xi
is called deformation gradient tensor or simply the deforma-
tion gradient and is denoted by Fki . Sometimes the notation F is used to express the

56
3.4. Deformation gradients, Finite strain tensor

deformation gradient as
∂x
F= = Grad x .
∂X
The capital ‘G’ is used on“Grad” to emphasize that this is a gradient with respect to the
material coordinates, the material gradient. Now using Eq.(3.4.6) in Eq.(3.4.3) we have

∂xk ∂xl
dl2 = δkl dXi dXj
∂Xi ∂Xj
∂xk ∂xk
= dXi dXj (as δkl = 1 , if k = l) . (3.4.7)
∂Xi ∂Xj

The difference dl2 − dL2 is a measure of change of length of line element. Therefore

∂xk ∂xk
dl2 − dL2 = dXi dXj − δij dXi dXj
∂Xi ∂Xj
 
∂xk ∂xk
= − δij dXi dXj
∂Xi ∂Xj
= 2rij dXi dXj , (3.4.8)

where
 
1 ∂xk ∂xk
rij = − δij
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj
1
= [Cij − δij ] , (3.4.9)
2

in which we have a symmetric tensor

∂xk ∂xk
Cij =
∂Xi ∂Xj
i.e. , C = FT · F ,

known as the Green’s deformation tensor.

From this we immediately define the Lagrangian finite strain tensor rij as

2rij = Cij − δij

⇒ 2R = C − I .

57
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

Therefore we can write

dl2 − dL2 dXi dXj

2
= 2rij = 2rij Ni Nj . (3.4.10)
dL dL dL

The deformation of a body is completely described by the displacement vector. It is

possible to express Lagrangian finite strain tensor rij in terms of the displacement.

If ui be the displacement of a material point from its position P0 to P , then

u i = xi − X i . (3.4.11)

If ui + dui be the displacement of the material point from its position Q0 to Q, then

ui + dui = (xi + dxi ) − (Xi + dXi ) (3.4.12)

⇒ (xi − Xi ) + dui = (xi − Xi ) + (dxi − dXi )

⇒ dui = dxi − dXi

⇒ dxi = dui + dXi

⇒ dxk = duk + dXk

Therefore

∂xk ∂uk ∂Xk

= +
∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xi
⇒ xk,i = uk,i + δki (3.4.13)

and

∂xk ∂uk ∂Xk

= +
∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xj
⇒ xk,j = uk,j + δkj . (3.4.14)

58
3.5. Change in the angle between two line elements in material method

Therefore form Eq.(3.4.9), we have

 
1 ∂xk ∂xk
rij = − δij
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj
    
1 ∂uk ∂uk
= + δik · + δjk − δij
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj
 
1 ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk
= + δik + δjk + δik δjk − δij
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xi
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
= + + , (as δik δjk = δij )
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj
1
= [ui,j + uj,i + uk,i · uk,j ] (3.4.15)
2

The quantities rij ’s are called Lagrangian strains expressed in terms of displacement
components.

For infinitesimal deformation, ui ’s are small. Therefore, the second order terms can be
neglected and we have
uk,i · uk,j ≈ 0 .

Therefore

1
rij ≈ [ui,j + uj,i ] = eij (say) .
2

3.5 Change in the angle between two line elements in

material method
Here we consider change in angle between two material line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0
at P0 inclined at an angle Θ, where P0 Q0 is of length dL oriented in the direction
(N1 , N2 , N3 ) and P0 R0 is of length δL oriented in the direction (M1 , M2 , M3 ) in the
region B0 . If Q0 has coordinates (Xi + dXi ) and R0 has coordinates (Xi + δXi ), then

δXi dXi
Mi = , Ni = (3.5.1)
δL dL

59
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

and
dXi δXi
cos Θ = = Ni Mi . (3.5.2)
dL δL
when the body undergoes deformation, the two line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0 at P0 will
defrom into two other line elements P Q and P R at P of length dl and δl, oriented in
the direction (n1 , n2 , n3 ) and (m1 , m2 , m3 ) and inclined at an angle θ in the region B. If
Q has coordinates (xi + dxi ) and R has coordinates (xi + δxi ), then

δxi dxi dxi δxi

mi = , ni = and cos θ = = ni mi . (3.5.3)
δl dl dl δl

Also, we have

∂xk ∂xk
dxk = dXj , δxk = δXj . (3.5.4)
∂Xj ∂Xj

Therefore we can write

δl2 − δL2 δXi δXj

2
= 2rij = 2rij Mi Mj (3.5.5)
δL δL δL

and
dl2 − dL2 dXi dXj
2
= 2rij = 2rij Ni Nj .
dL dL dL
Again,

dxi δxi − dXi δXi = dxk δxk − dXi δXi

∂xk ∂xk
= dXi δXj − δij dXi δXj
∂Xi ∂Xj
= 2rij dXi δXj , (3.5.6)

where rij is given by (3.4.15).

60
3.5. Change in the angle between two line elements in material method

Hence

dxi δxi dXi δXi dXi δXj

− = 2rij
dL δL dL δL dL δL
dxi δxi dl δl dXi δXi dXi δXj
⇒ − = 2rij
dl δl dL δL dL δL dL δL
dl δl
⇒ cos θ − cos Θ = 2rij Ni Mj . (3.5.7)
dL δL

Now equation (3.4.10), (3.5.5) and (3.5.7) show that if rij = 0, then dl = dL, δl =
δL, θ = Θ. Thus when rij = 0, length of a line element and angle between two line
elements remain unchanged during deformation and the body has undergone only rigid
body deformation. Therefore, the necessary and sufficient condition for rigid body de-
formation at each point is rij = 0.

Note: From Eq.(3.4.10) we observe that 2rij Ni Nj is a scalar. But the product Ni Nj of
two vector components is known to be a tensor of order two. Therefore by quotient law
of tensor, rij is a second order tensor known as Lagrangian finite strain tensor. Further,
" #
1 ∂uj ∂ui ∂uk ∂uk
rij = + +
2 ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xi
" #
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
= + +
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj
= rji (3.5.8)

so that rij is symmetric.

Example: Given that displacement field x1 = X1 + 2X3 , x2 = X2 − 2X3 , x3 =

X3 − 2X1 + 2X2 . Determine the deformation gradient, Green’s deformation tensor and
Lagrangian finite strain tensor.

Solution: The deformation gradient F has the matrix form

61
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

   
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
1 0 2
 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3   
 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2 
(Fki ) =  ∂X =  0 1 −2
 
∂X2 ∂X3 

 1  
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
−2 2 1

The Green’s deformation Tensor C = FT · F has the matrix

     
1 −2
0 1 0 2 5 −4 0
     
(Cij ) = 0 1 2  ·  0 1 −2 = −4 5 0
     
     
2 −2 1 −2 2 1 0 0 9

The displacement components ui = xi − Xi of a material point are given by

u1 = x1 − X1 = X1 + 2X3 − X1 = 2X3

u2 = x2 − X2 = X2 − 2X3 − X2 = −2X3

u3 = x3 − X3 = X3 − 2X1 + 2X2 − X3 = −2X1 + 2X2

Now the second order Lagrangian finite strain tensor rij are given by
" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂uk ∂uk
r11 = + +
2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= + + +
∂X1 2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
" #
1 2
= 0 + 0 + 02 + (−2)2 = 2
2

" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂uk ∂uk
r22 = + +
2 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u2 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= + + +
∂X2 2 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2
" #
1 2
= 0 + 0 + 02 + 2 2 = 2
2

62
3.5. Change in the angle between two line elements in material method

" #
1 ∂u3 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
r33 = + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u3 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= + + +
∂X3 2 ∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3
" #
1 2 2 2
= 0 + 2 + (−2) + 0 = 4
2

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂uk ∂uk
r12 = + +
2 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X2
" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + + + +
2 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X1 ∂X2
" #
1
= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + (−2)2 = −2 = r21
2

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
r13 = + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X3
" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u3 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + + + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3
" #
1
= 2 + (−2) + 0 · 2 + 0 · (−2) + (−2) · 0 = 0 = r31
2

" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
r23 = + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X3
" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + + + +
2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X2 ∂X3
" #
1
= (−2) + 2 + 0 · 2 + 0 · (−2) + 2 · 0 = 0 = r32
2

63
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

In matrix notation, the second order Lagrangian finite strain tensor rij are given by
     
2 −2 0 5 −4 0 1 0 0
  1  1  1 1
(rij ) = −2 2 0 = −4 5 0 − 0 1 0 = C − I .
     
  2  2  2 2
0 0 4 0 0 9 0 0 1

3.6 Eulerian finite strain tensor

In the spatial method of description of deformation (x1 , x2 , x3 ) are regarded as indepen-
dent variables and the equation characterizing the defromation can be written as

Xk = Xk (x1 , x2 , x3 , t); k = 1, 2, 3 , (3.6.1)

where X1 , X2 , X3 represents the material coordinates of a material particle. Since Xk +

dXk are coordinates of Q0 at the same time t, Therefore

∂Xk ∂Xk
dXk = dxi = dxj = Xk,j dxj (3.6.2)
∂xi ∂xj

∂Xk
The quantity Xk,,j = ∂xj
is called deformation gradient tensor or simply the deforma-
−1
tion gradient and is dented by Fkj or F−1 . Then

dX = F−1 · dx .

Also we have
∂Xk ∂Xk
dL2 = dXk dXk = dxi dxj . (3.6.3)
∂xi ∂xj
and
dl2 = dx · dx = dxi · dxi = δij dxi dxj . (3.6.4)

64
3.6. Eulerian finite strain tensor

∴ A measure of change of length of a line element

= dl2 − dL2
∂Xk ∂Xk
= δij dxi dxj − dxi dxj
∂xi ∂xj
" #
∂xk ∂xk
= δij − dxi dxj
∂xi ∂xj
= 2ηij dxi dxj , (3.6.5)

where
 
1 ∂Xk ∂Xk
ηij = δij −
2 ∂xi ∂xj
1
= [δij − cij ] (3.6.6)
2

in which we have a symmetric tensor

∂Xk ∂Xk
cij =
∂xi ∂xj
i.e., c = (F−1 )T · F−1 ,

which is known as the Cauchy’s deformation tensor.

From this, we immediately define the Eulerian finite strain tensor ηij as

2ηij = δij − cij

or, 2η = I − c .

Now, we can write

dl2 − dL2 dxi dxj
2
= 2nij = 2ηij ni nj (3.6.7)
dl dl dl
The Eulerian finite strain tensor expressed by Eq.(3.6.6) is given in terms of the appro-
priate deformation gradients. These same tensors may also be developed in terms of
displacement gradients.

65
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

In component notation, the material description is

u i = xi − X i .

The deformation of a body is completely described by the displacement vector. It is

possible to express ηij in terms of the displacement ui of a spatial point from its position
from P0 to P , then
ui = xi − Xi i.e., Xk = xk − uk .

If ui + dui be the displacement of the spatial point from its position Q0 to Q, then

ui + dui = (xi + dxi ) − (Xi + dXi )

⇒ (xi − Xi ) + dui = (xi − Xi ) + (dxi − dXi )

⇒ dui = dxi − dXi

⇒ dXk = dxk − duk .

Differentiating with respect to xj , we get

∂Xk
Xk,i =
∂xi
∂xk ∂uk
= −
∂xi ∂xi
∂uk
= δki −
∂xi
= δki − uk,i .

Similarly, differentiating with respect to xi , we get

∂xk ∂uk
Xk,j = −
∂xj ∂xj
= δkj − uk,j .

Then from equation (3.6.6), the expression for ηij in terms of the displacement ui of a

66
3.7. Change in the angle between two line elements in spatial method

material point from its position P0 to P is given by

 
1 ∂Xk ∂Xk
ηij = δij −
2 ∂xi ∂xj
1
= [δij − Xk,i Xk,j ]
2
1
= [δij − (δki − uk,i )(δkj − uk,j )]
2   
1 ∂uk ∂uk
= δij − δki − δkj −
2 ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk ∂uk
= δij − δki δkj + δkj + δki −
2 ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk
= + − as δki δkj = δij .
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj
1
= [ui,j + uj,i − uk,i · uk,j ] . (3.6.8)
2

3.7 Change in the angle between two line elements in

spatial method
Here we consider change in angle between two material line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0
at P0 inclined at an angle Θ, where P0 Q0 is of length dL oriented in the direction
(N1 , N2 , N3 ) and P0 R0 is of length δL oriented in the direction (M1 , M2 , M3 ) in the
region B0 . If Q0 has coordinates (Xi + dXi ) and R0 has coordinates (Xi + δXi ), then

δXi dXi dxi δXi

Mi = , Ni = and cos Θ = = Ni Mi . (3.7.1)
δL dL dL δL

When the body undergoes deformation, the two line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0 at P0 will
deform into two other line elements P Q and P R at P of length dl and δl, oriented in
the direction (n1 , n2 , n3 ) and (m1 , m2 , m3 ) and inclined at an angle θ in the region B.

If Q has coordinates (xi + dxi ) and R has coordinates (xi + δxi ), then

δxi dxi dxi δxi

mi = , ni = , cos θ = = ni mi . (3.7.2)
δL dL dl δl

67
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

Also we have

∂Xk ∂Xk
dXk = dxi , i.e, δXk = δxi
∂xi ∂xi

Therefore

δl2 − δL2 δXi δXj

2
= 2ηij = 2ηij Mi Mj
δL δL δL
dl2 − dL2 dXi dXj
= 2ηij = 2ηij Ni Nj .
dL2 dL dL

Again

dxi δxi − dXi δXi = δij dxi δxj − dxk δxk

∂Xk ∂Xk
= δij dxi δxj − dxi δxj
∂Xi ∂Xj
= 2ηij dxi δxj

h i
1 ∂Xk ∂Xk
where ηij = 2
δij − ∂Xi ∂Xj
.

dxi δxi dXi δXi dxi δxj

∴ − = 2ηij
dl δl dl δl dl δl
dxi δxi dXi dL δXi δL
⇒ − = 2ηij ni mj
dl δl dL dl δL δl
dL δL
⇒ cos θ − cos Θ = 2ηij ni mj (3.7.3)
dl δl

We observed that if ηij = 0, then dL = dl, δL = δl, θ = Θ.

Thus, when ηij = 0, length of a line element and angle between two line elements remain
unchanged during deformation and the body undergone only rigid body deformation.

(i) Thus the necessary and sufficient condition for rigid body deformation at each point
is ηij = 0.

(ii) The knowledge of ηij at a point enables us to determine the change in length of a
line element and change in angle between two line elements. Therefore ηij can be taken
as the measure of strain deformation.

(iii) It can be easily shown that ηij is a symmetric tensor of order two. It is known as

68
3.7. Change in the angle between two line elements in spatial method

Eulerian finite strain tensor.

Example: Given the displacement field x1 = X1 + 2X3 , x2 = X2 − 2X3 , x3 =

X3 − 2X1 + 2X2 . Determine the deformation gradient, Cauchy’s deformation tensors
and Eulerian finite strain tensor.

Solution: We have
x1 = X1 + 2X3 , (3.7.4)

x2 = X2 − 2X3 , (3.7.5)

x3 = X3 − 2X1 + 2X2 . (3.7.6)

From (3.7.4) and (3.7.5), we have

x1 + x2 = X 1 + X 2 . (3.7.7)

From (3.7.5) and (3.7.6), we have

x2 + 2x3 = −4X1 + 5X2 . (3.7.8)

From (3.7.7) and (3.7.8), we have

4(x1 + x2 ) + (x2 + 2x3 ) = 4X2 + 5X2 ,

1
⇒ X2 = [4x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ] . (3.7.9)
9

Therefore

X1 = x1 + x2 − X2 From (3.7.7)
1
⇒ X1 = x1 + x2 − [4x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ]
9
1
⇒ X1 = [5x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 ] (3.7.10)
9

69
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

and

X3 = x3 + 2x1 − 2x2
2 2
⇒ X3 = x3 + [5x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 ] − [4x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ]
9 9
1
⇒ X3 = [2x1 − 2x2 + x3 ] (3.7.11)
9

The deformation gradient F−1 has the matrix form

   
∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
5 4 −2
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 
1  
(Fki −1 ) =  ∂X ∂X2 ∂X2
 = 4 5
 2   
2
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3  9 
∂X3 ∂X3 ∂X3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
2 −2 1

The Cauchy’s deformation tensor, c = (F −1 )T · F −1 has the matrix form

 T    
5 4 −2 5 4 −2 45 36 0
1  1  1  
(cij ) = 4 5 2  · 4 5 2 =
     
36 45 0
9  9  81  
2 −2 1 2 −2 1 0 0 9

The displacement components ui = xi − Xi of a material point are given by

1 1
u1 = x1 − X1 = x1 − (5x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 ) = (4x1 − 4x2 + 2x3 ),
9 9
1 1
u2 = x2 − X2 = x2 − (4x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ) = (−4x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 ),
9 9
1 1
u3 = x3 − X3 = x3 − (2x1 − 2x2 + x3 ) = (−2x1 + 2x2 + 8x3 ),
9 9

Now the Eulerian finite strain tensor are given by

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂uk ∂uk
η11 = + −
2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= − + +
∂x1 2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
" !2 !2 !2 #
4 1 4 4 2 2
= − + − + − =
9 2 9 9 9 9

70
3.7. Change in the angle between two line elements in spatial method

" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂uk ∂uk
η22 = + −
2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u2 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= − + +
∂x2 2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
" !2 !2 !2 #
4 1 4 4 2 2
= − − + + =
9 2 9 9 9 9

" #
1 ∂u3 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
η33 = + −
2 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
" !2 !2 !2 #
∂u3 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= − + +
∂x3 2 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
" !2 !2 !2 #
8 1 2 2 8 4
= − + − + =
9 2 9 9 9 9

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂uk ∂uk
η12 = + −
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x2
" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + − − −
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
" ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !#
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2
= − + − − − − − − −
2 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2
= − = η21
9

71
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
η13 = + −
2 ∂x3 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x3
" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u3 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + − − −
2 ∂x3 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x3 ∂x1 ∂x3 ∂x1 ∂x3
" ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !#
1 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 8
= + − − − − − − −
2 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
= 0 = η31

" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂uk ∂uk
η23 = + −
2 ∂x3 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x3
" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
= + − − −
2 ∂x3 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x2 ∂x3
" ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !#
1 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 8
= − + − − − − −
2 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
= 0 = η32

In matrix notation, the second order Eulerian finite strain tensors ηij are given by
     
2 −2 0 1 0 0 45 36 0
1  1  1 1  
(ηij ) = −2 = − ·
     
2 0 0 1 0 36 45 0
9  2  2 81  
0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 1

∴ η = 21 I − 21 c.

3.8 Infinitesimal strain components

There are many important engineering problems that involve structural members or ma-
chine parts for which the deformation is very small (mathematically treated as infinites-
imal). Some common materials like metals, concrete, wood etc. undergo small changes
of shape when forces of reasonable magnitude are applied to them.

72
3.8. Infinitesimal strain components

If the displacement gradients are small and the squares and products of the partial deriva-
tives of u′i s are negligible then the Lagrangian finite strain tensor reduces to infinitesimal
Lagrangian strain tensor denoted by Eij , i, j = 1, 2, 3.

In this case we have,

" #
1 1 ∂ui ∂uj
Eij (X1 , X2 , X3 ) ≈ [ui,j + uj,i ] = +
2 2 ∂Xj ∂Xi

Therefore, normal strains are given by

∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

E11 = u1,1 = , E22 = u2,2 = , E33 = u3,3 =
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3

and shearing strains are given by

" #
1 1 ∂u2 ∂u3
E23 = [u2,3 + u3,2 ] = + ,
2 2 ∂X3 ∂X2
" #
1 1 ∂u3 ∂u1
E31 = [u3,1 + u1,3 ] = + ,
2 2 ∂X1 ∂X3
" #
1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2
E12 = [u1,2 + u2,1 ] = + .
2 2 ∂X2 ∂X1

Similarly the Eulerian finite strain tensors reduces to infinitesimal Eulerian strain tensor
denoted by eij (i, j = 1, 2, 3).

Therefore,
" #
1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ≈ + .
2 ∂xj ∂xi

Hence, the normal stains are given by

∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

e11 = , e22 = , e33 =
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

73
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

and the shearing strains are given by

" # " # " #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3 1 ∂u3 ∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2
e23 = + , e31 = + , e12 = + .
2 ∂x3 ∂x2 2 ∂x1 ∂x3 2 ∂x2 ∂x1

We now show that if both the displacement components and their gradients are small
then Eij (X1 , X2 , X3 ) and eij (x1 , x2 , x3 ) are identical.

We have xi = Xi + ui . By Taylor’s series

ui (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ui (X1 + u1 , X2 + u2 , X3 + u3 )
∂ui
= ui (X1 , X2 , X3 ) + ui + ···
∂Xj
≈ ui (X1 , X2 , X3 )

∂ui
(neglecting the product terms ui ∂X j
and small quantities of higher order)

Therefore

∂ui ∂ui
(X1 , X2 , X3 ) ≈ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂Xj ∂Xj
∂ui ∂xk
= (x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂xk ∂Xj
" #
∂ui ∂uk
= (x1 , x2 , x3 ) + δkj (since xi = Xi + ui )
∂xk ∂Xj
∂ui
≈ (x1 , x2 , x3 )δkj (neglecting the product term)
∂xk
∂ui
= (x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂xj

Therefore in Cartesian coordinate

" #
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Eij = +
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
" #
1 ∂ui ∂uj
= +
2 ∂xj ∂xi
= eij .

74
3.9. Geometrical interpretation of infinitesimal strain components

We observe that in infinitesimal deformation case, the distinction between Lagrangian

and Eulerian strain components disappears. This is because of the fact that it is quite
immaterial whether the derivatives are to be evaluated at the position of a point before
or after deformation.

Note: In matrix notation the infinitesimal Lagrangian Strain tensor E in terms of the
components of the displacement gradients in rectangular Cartesian coordinates is given
by

 h i h i
∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2 1 ∂u1 ∂u3
∂X1 2 ∂X2
+ ∂X1 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X1
 h i h i
 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u3
[E] =  12 ∂X + 1
+ .

 h 2 ∂X1 ∂X2 2 ∂X3 ∂X2 
i h i
1 ∂u1 ∂u3 1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u3
2 ∂X3
+ ∂X1 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X3 ∂X3

3.9 Geometrical interpretation of infinitesimal strain com-

ponents
A geometrical meaning for the strains is provided by considering the length and angle
changes as a result of the deformation. In analyzing the state of strain in undeformed
body, it is natural to use the coordinates of the initial state as independent variables
and follow the material description of deformation throughout. To give a geometrical
interpretation of strains E11 , E22 , E33 , we first consider the change in length of a material
line element.

3.9.1 Diagonal elements of Eij

Consider a material line element P0 Q0 of length dL at P0 (X1 , X2 , X3 ) oriented in the

direction of (N1 , N2 , N3 ) in the undeformed body. After deformation, line element P0 Q0
deforms into a line element P Q of length dl at P (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in the deformed body. We
know that
dl2 − dL2
= 2Eij Ni Nj , (3.9.1)
dL2
h i
1 ∂ui ∂uj
where Eij = 2 ∂Xj
+ ∂Xi
=infinitesimal strain tensor at P0 (X1 , X2 , X3 ).

75
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

From Eq.(3.9.1) we obtain

dl2
− 1 = 2Eij Ni Nj
dL2
dl
⇒ = (1 + 2Eij Ni Nj )1/2
dL
dl
⇒ = 1 + Eij Ni Nj + · · · ,
dL

When strain components are so small that we can neglect squares and products of Eij .
Then

dl
= 1 + Eij Ni Nj
dL
dl
⇒ − 1 = Eij Ni Nj
dL
dl − dL
⇒ = Eij Ni Nj . (3.9.2)
dL

Now, left hand side of Eq.(3.9.2) is the extension per unit original length of a line ele-
ment oriented in the direction N1 , N2 , N3 and is called small extensional strain denoted
by E(N ) .

Hence small extension strain is E(N ) = Eij Ni Nj .

3.9.2 Geometrical interpretation of E11 , E22 , E33

Consider a line element initially parallel to X1 -axis. Then we have N1 = 1, N2 =

0, N3 = 0. Therefore, E(1) = E11 .

Thus E11 is the extension per unit original length of a line element which is initially
parallel to X1 -axis. Similarly, E22 , E33 represent the extension of a line element per
unit original length which are initially parallel to X2 - and X3 - axes respectively. These
components E11 , E22 , E33 are called extensional strain or normal strain.

To give the geometrical interpretation of strain E23 , E31 , E12 , we consider the change in
angle between orthogonal line elements.

76
3.9. Geometrical interpretation of infinitesimal strain components

3.9.3 The off diagonal elements of Eij

Consider two orthogonal material line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0 of length dL and δL at

P0 (X1 , X2 , X3 ) in the undeformed state of the body oriented in the direction (N1 , N2 , N3 )
and (M1 , M2 , M3 ) respectively. After deformatin, two line elements P0 Q0 and P0 R0 de-
form into another two line elements P Q and P R at P of length dl and δl respectively
inclined at an angle θ in the deformed state of the body. We know that

dl δl π 
cos θ − cos = 2Eij Ni Mj
dL δL 2
dl δl π 
⇒ sin − θ = 2Eij Ni Mj
dL δL 2
π  2E N M
ij i j
⇒ sin −θ = dl δl
2 dL δL

 
∂ui ∂uj
where Eij = 12 ∂X j
+ ∂Xi
= infinitesimal strain tensor at P0 .
 
Now π2 − θ is the decrease in right angle between two orthogonal lines P0 Q0 and
P0 R0 in the undeformed state and is called shear along two lines.

If νN M denote the shear along two orthogonal line elements initially oriented in the
direction (N1 , N2 , N3 ) and (M1 , M2 , M3 ), then

π
ν(N M ) = −θ
2
2Eij Ni Mj
and sin ν(N M ) = dl δl
. (3.9.3)
dL δL

If E1 denotes the extension of P0 Q0 and E2 that of P0 R0 , then

dl − dL
E1 =
dL
⇒ dl = (1 + E1 )dL
δl − δL
and E2 =
δL
⇒ δl = (1 + E2 )δL . (3.9.4)

77
 Chapter 3. Analysis of strain

Substituting these values in Eq.(3.9.3), we get

2Eij Ni Mj
sin ν(N M ) = (3.9.5)
(1 + E1 )(1 + E2 )
⇒ sin ν(N M ) = 2Eij Ni Mj (1 + E1 )−1 (1 + E2 )−1

⇒ sin ν(N M ) = 2Eij Ni Mj (1 + E1 + E2 + E1 E2 )−1

⇒ ν(N M ) = 2Eij Ni Mj .

(since for small deformation, sin ν(N M ) ≈ ν(N M ) and neglecting squares and products
of small quantities.)

3.9.4 Geometrical interpretation of E23 , E31 , E12

If we consider a part of orthogonal line elements initially parallel to X2 X3 axes respec-

tively, then we have N1 = 0, N2 = 1, N3 = 0 and M1 = 0, M2 = 0, M3 = 1.

Therefore

ν(23) = 2E23
1
or , E23 = ν(23) .
2

Thus, E23 represents one half of the shear between two linear elements which are ini-
tially parallel to X2 and X3 axes. Similar interpretations can be made in regard to E31
and E12 . Also, E23 , E31 , E12 are called shearing strains. Thus, Eij denotes increase in
length of a line element per unit original length or decrease in right angle between two
line elements.

Example: For the displacement field u1 = (X1 −X2 )2 , u2 = (X2 +X3 )2 , u3 = −X1 X2 ,
determine the extension of a line element in the direction of 89 , − 91 , 49 and compute the

⃗ =
change in right angle between N 1 ⃗ =
(8eˆ1 − eˆ2 + 4eˆ3 ) and M 1
(4eˆ1 − 4eˆ2 + 7eˆ3 )
9 9

at the point (0, 2, −1).

78
3.9. Geometrical interpretation of infinitesimal strain components

Solution: The infinitesimal strain tensors are given by

 
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Eij = + .
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi

∂u1
Therefore E11 = ∂X1
= 2(X1 − X2 ) = −4

∂u2
E22 = ∂X2
= 2(X2 + X3 ) = 2

∂u3
E33 = ∂X3
=0

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u2
E12 = 2 ∂X2
+ ∂X1
= 2 = E21

" #
1 ∂u1 ∂u3
E13 = 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X1
= −1 = E31

" #
1 ∂u2 ∂u3
E23 = 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X2
= 1 = E32 .

Thus at the point (0, 2, −1) the infinitesimal strain tensors are given by
 
−4 2 −1
 
(Eij ) =  2 2 1  .
 
 
−1 1 0

⃗ = (N1 , N2 , N3 ) =
The material line element at P0 (0, 2, −1) is oriented in the direction of N
( 98 , − 91 , 49 ). Then small extensional strain

E(N ) = Eij Ni Nj

= E11 N12 + E22 N22 + E33 N32 + 2(E12 N1 N2 + E13 N1 N3 + E23 N3 N3 )

358
= − .
81

79