Chapter 10: Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Chapter 10: Virtual Memory
▪ Background
▪ Demand Paging
▪ Copy-on-Write
▪ Page Replacement
▪ Allocation of Frames
▪ Thrashing

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 Objectives

▪ Define virtual memory and describe its benefits.

▪ Illustrate how pages are loaded into memory using demand paging.
▪ Apply the FIFO, optimal, and LRU page-replacement algorithms.
▪ Describe the working set of a process, and explain how it is related to
program locality.
▪ Design a virtual memory manager simulation in the C programming
language.

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 Background
▪ Code needs to be in memory to execute, but entire program rarely
used
• Error code, unusual routines, large data structures
▪ Entire program code not needed at same time
▪ Consider ability to execute partially-loaded program
• Program no longer constrained by limits of physical memory
• Each program takes less memory while running -> more programs
run at the same time
 Increased CPU utilization and throughput with no increase in
response time or turnaround time
• Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into memory -> each
user program runs faster
In programming, a routine is a set of instructions or code designed to perform a

specific task. It’s often called a function or subroutine.

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 Virtual memory

▪ Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical

memory
• Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
• Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
• Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
• Allows for more efficient process creation (vfork())
• More programs running concurrently (Degree of
multiprogramming)

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 Virtual memory (Cont.)

▪ Virtual address space – logical view of how process is stored in

memory
• Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of
space
• Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
• MMU must map logical to physical
▪ Virtual memory can be implemented via:
• Demand paging
• Demand segmentation

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 Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory

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 Virtual-address Space
▪ Usually design logical address space for stack to start
at Max logical address and grow “down” while heap
grows “up”
• Maximizes address space use
• Unused address space between the two is hole
 No physical memory needed until heap or
stack grows to a given new page
▪ Enables sparse address spaces with holes left for
growth, dynamically linked libraries, etc.
▪ System libraries shared via mapping into virtual
address space
• Although each process considers the libraries
to be part of its virtual address space, the
actual pages where the libraries reside in
physical memory are shared by all the
processes

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 Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

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 Demand Paging

▪ Bring a page into memory only

when it is needed
• Less I/O needed, no
unnecessary I/O
• Less memory needed
• Faster response
• More users
▪ Similar to paging system with
swapping (diagram on right)
▪ Page is needed  reference to it
• invalid reference  abort
• not-in-memory  bring to
memory

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 Valid-Invalid Bit
▪ With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
▪ Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
▪ Example of a page table snapshot:

▪ During MMU address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry

is i  page fault

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 Page Table When Some Pages Are Not
in Main Memory

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 Steps in Handling a Page Fault (Cont.)

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 Steps in Handling Page Fault

1. If there is a reference to a page, first reference to that page will trap to

operating system (Why??)
• Page fault
2. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
• Invalid reference  abort
•
Just not in memory
3. Find free frame
4. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
5. Reset tables to indicate page now in memory
Set validation bit = v
6. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault

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 Aspects of Demand Paging

▪ Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory

• OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of process, non-
memory-resident -> page fault
• And for every other process pages on first access
• Pure demand paging
▪ Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages -> multiple
page faults
• Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds 2 numbers
from memory and stores result back to memory
• Pain decreased because of locality of reference
▪ Hardware support needed for demand paging
• Page table with valid / invalid bit
• Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
• Instruction restart

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 Free-Frame List

▪ When a page fault occurs, the operating system must bring the
desired page from secondary storage into main memory.
▪ Most operating systems maintain a free-frame list -- a pool of free
frames for satisfying such requests.

▪ Operating system typically allocate free frames using a technique

known as zero-fill-on-demand -- the content of the frames zeroed-
out by erasing their previous contents.
▪ When a system starts up, all available memory is placed on the free-
frame list.

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 Stages in Demand Paging – Worse Case

▪ Demand paging can significantly affect the performance of a computer

system. (consider the given situation!!)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state (Why??)
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of
the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
a) Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
b) Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
c) Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame

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 Stages in Demand Paging (Cont.)

6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user

7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then
resume the interrupted instruction

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 Performance of Demand Paging
▪ Page Fault Rate 0  p  1
• if p = 0 no page faults
• if p = 1, every reference is a fault
▪ Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in )

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 Demand Paging Example
▪ Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
▪ Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
▪ EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
▪ If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
▪ If want performance degradation < 10 percent
• 220 > 200 + 7,999,800 x p
20 > 7,999,800 x p
• p < .0000025
• < one page fault in every 400,000 memory accesses
▪ What is the take away??

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 Demand Paging Optimizations
▪ Swap space I/O faster than file system I/O even if on the same device
• Swap allocated in larger chunks, less management needed than file
system
▪ Copy entire process image to swap space at process load time
• Then page in and out of swap space
• Used in older BSD Unix
▪ Demand page in from program binary on disk, but discard rather than paging
out when freeing frame
• Used in Solaris and current BSD
• Still need to write to swap space
 Pages not associated with a file (like stack and heap) – anonymous
memory
 Pages modified in memory but not yet written back to the file system
▪ Mobile systems
• Typically don’t support swapping
• Instead, demand page from file system and reclaim read-only pages
(such as code)

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 Copy-on-Write
▪ Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes to initially share
the same pages in memory
• If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the page copied
▪ COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified pages are copied
▪ In general, free pages are allocated from a pool of zero-fill-on-demand pages
• Pool should always have free frames for fast demand page execution
 Don’t want to have to free a frame as well as other processing on page
fault
• Why zero-out a page before allocating it?

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 Before Process 1 Modifies Page C

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 After Process 1 Modifies Page C

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 fork() and vfork()
▪ fork() system call creates a child process that is a duplicate of its
parent.
• Traditionally, fork() worked by creating a copy of the parent’s
address space for the child
• many child processes invoke the exec() system call immediately
after creation, the copying of the parent’s address space may be
unnecessary.
• fork() with copy-on-write technique can we used.
▪ virtual memory fork i.e., vfork()
• With vfork(), the parent process is suspended, and the child
process uses the address space of the parent.
• Because vfork() does not use copy-on-write, if the child process
changes any pages of the parent’s address space, the altered
pages will be visible to the parent once it resumes.
• vfork() must be used with caution to ensure that the child process
does not modify the address space of the parent.

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 What Happens if There is no Free Frame?
▪ Used up by process pages
▪ Also in demand from the kernel, I/O buffers, etc
▪ Deciding how much memory to allocate to I/O and how much to
program pages is a significant challenge?
▪ Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use,
page it out
• Algorithm – terminate process? swap out process? replace the
page?
• Performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum
number of page faults
▪ Same page may be brought into memory several times

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 Page Replacement
▪ Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault service
routine to include page replacement
▪ Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only
modified pages are written to disk

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 Need For Page Replacement

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 Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
2. Find a free frame:
- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to
select a victim frame
- Write victim frame to disk if dirty
3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables
4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the
trap
We have original pages on the disk.

The RAM only holds temporary copies.

During page replacement, we swap out the copied pages, not the original pages.

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 Page Replacement

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 Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms

▪ Frame-allocation algorithm determines

• How many frames to give each process
• Which frames to replace
▪ Page-replacement algorithm
• Want lowest page-fault rate on both first access and re-access
▪ Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory
references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults
on that string
• String is just page numbers, not full addresses
• Repeated access to the same page does not cause a page fault
• Results depend on number of frames available
▪ In all our examples, the reference string of referenced page numbers
is
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

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 Graph of Page Faults Versus the Number of Frames

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 First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
▪ Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
▪ 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

15 page faults
▪ How to track ages of pages?
• Just use a FIFO queue

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 FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly
▪ # page fault vary by reference string: consider 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5
▪ Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
 Belady’s Anomaly

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 Optimal Algorithm
▪ Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
• 9 is optimal for the example
▪ How do you know this?
• Can’t read the future
▪ Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs

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 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm

▪ Use past knowledge rather than future

▪ Replace page that has not been used in the most amount of time
▪ Associate time of last use with each page

▪ 12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

▪ Generally good algorithm and frequently used
▪ But how to implement?

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 LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
▪ Counter implementation
• Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced
through this entry, copy the clock into the counter
• When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to find
smallest value
 Search through table needed
▪ Stack implementation
• Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
• Page referenced:
 move it to the top
• But each update more expensive
• No search for replacement

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 LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
▪ LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t have
Belady’s Anomaly (Justification??)

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 LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
▪ LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t have
Belady’s Anomaly (Justification??)
▪ A stack algorithm is an algorithm for which it can be shown that the set
of pages in memory for n frames is always a subset of the set of pages
that would be in memory with n+1 frames.

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 LRU Approximation Algorithms
▪ Unfortunately full implementation of LRU requires hardware support,
and few systems provide this.
▪ However many systems offer some degree of HW support, enough to
approximate LRU fairly well.
• many systems provide a Reference bit for every entry in a page
table
 initially = 0
 When page is referenced bit set to 1
 One bit of precision is enough to distinguish pages that have
been accessed since the last clear
– does not provide any finer grain of detail
» We do not know the order, however

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 Additional-Reference-Bits Algorithm
▪ Finer grain is possible by storing the most recent 8 reference bits
(unsigned int) for each page in the page table entry.
• At periodic intervals, the OS takes over, and right-shifts each of
the reference bytes by one bit.
• The high-order (leftmost) bit is then filled in with the current value
of the reference bit, and the reference bits are cleared.
• At any given time, the page with the smallest value for the
reference byte is the LRU page.

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 LRU Approximation Algorithms (cont.)

▪ Second-chance algorithm
• Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference bit
• Clock replacement
• If page to be replaced has
 Reference bit = 0 -> replace it
 reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory
– replace next page, subject to same rules
• What if all reference bits in the table are set??
 Good as FIFO?

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 Second-chance Algorithm

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 Enhanced Second-Chance Algorithm

▪ Improve algorithm by using reference bit and modify bit (if available)
in concert
▪ Take ordered pair (reference, modify):
• (0, 0) neither recently used not modified – best page to replace
(Why??)
• (0, 1) not recently used but modified – not quite as good, must
write out before replacement
• (1, 0) recently used but clean – probably will be used again soon
• (1, 1) recently used and modified – probably will be used again
soon and need to write out before replacement
▪ When page replacement called for, use the clock scheme but use the
four classes replace page in lowest non-empty class
• Might need to search circular queue several times

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 Counting Algorithms

▪ Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made

to each page
• Not common
▪ Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm:
• Replaces page with smallest count
▪ Most Frequently Used (MFU) Algorithm:
• Based on the argument that the page with the smallest count
was probably just brought in and has yet to be used

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 Page-Buffering Algorithms
▪ Maintain a certain minimum number of free frames at all times.
• When a page-fault occurs, go ahead and allocate one of the free
frames from the free list first, to up the requesting process ASAP.
• select a victim page to write to disk and free up a frame as a
second step.
▪ Possibly, keep list of modified pages
• When backing store otherwise idle, write pages there and set to
non-dirty
▪ Possibly, keep free frame contents intact and note what is in them
• If referenced again before reused, no need to load contents again
from disk
• Generally useful to reduce penalty if wrong victim frame selected

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 Allocation of Frames
▪ Each process needs minimum number of frames
▪ Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE instruction:
• instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages
• 2 pages to handle from
• 2 pages to handle to
▪ Maximum of course is total frames in the system
▪ Two major allocation schemes
• fixed allocation
• priority allocation
▪ Many variations

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 Fixed Allocation
▪ Equal allocation – For example, if there are 100 frames (after
allocating frames for the OS) and 5 processes, give each process 20
frames
• Keep some as free frame buffer pool

▪ Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of process

• Dynamic as degree of multiprogramming, process sizes change
m = 64
si = size of process pi s1 = 10
S =  si s2 = 127
m = total number of frames a1 =
10
´ 62 » 4
137
si
ai = allocation for pi = m 127
S a2 = ´ 62 » 57
137

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 10.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Global vs. Local Allocation
▪ Global replacement – process selects a replacement frame from the
set of all frames; one process can take a frame from another
• But then process execution time can vary greatly
• But greater throughput so more common
▪ Local replacement – each process selects from only its own set of
allocated frames
• More consistent per-process performance
• But possibly underutilized memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 10.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Practice Problem
▪ Consider the following page reference string:
• 7, 2, 3, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 6, 7, 7, 1, 0, 5, 4, 6, 2, 3, 0 , 1.
Assuming demand paging with three frames, how many page faults would
occur for the following replacement algorithms?
• LRU replacement
• FIFO replacement
• Optimal replacement
• Second Chance Algorithm

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 10.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Reclaiming Pages
▪ A strategy to implement global page-replacement policy
▪ All memory requests are satisfied from the free-frame list, rather than
waiting for the list to drop to zero before we begin selecting pages for
replacement,
▪ Page replacement is triggered when the list falls below a certain
threshold.
▪ This strategy attempts to ensure there is always sufficient free
memory to satisfy new requests.

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 Reclaiming Pages Example

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 Non-Uniform Memory Access
▪ So far, we assumed that all memory accessed equally
▪ Many systems are NUMA – speed of access to memory varies
• Consider system boards containing CPUs and memory,
interconnected over a system bus
▪ NUMA multiprocessing architecture

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 Thrashing

▪ If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is very
high
• Page fault to get page
• Replace existing frame
• But quickly need replaced frame back
• This leads to:
 Low CPU utilization
 Operating system thinking that it needs to increase the degree
of multiprogramming
 Another process added to the system

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 Thrashing (Cont.)
▪ Thrashing. A process is busy swapping pages in and out
▪ A process is thrashing if it is spending more time paging than
executing

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 Demand Paging and Thrashing

▪ To prevent thrashing, we must provide a process with as many

frames as it needs. But how do we know how many frames it
“needs”?
• Looking at how many frames a process is actually using.
• This approach defines the locality model of process execution.
▪ Locality model states that, as a process executes, it moves from
locality to locality.
• Locality is a set of pages that are actively used together.
• A running program is generally composed of several different
localities, which may overlap.
▪ Why does thrashing occur?
 size of locality > total memory size

▪ Limit effects by using local or priority page replacement

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 Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern

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 Working-Set Model
▪   working-set window  a fixed number of page references
▪ WSSi (working-set size of Process Pi) = total number of pages
referenced in the most recent  (varies in time)
• if  too small will not encompass entire locality
• if  too large will encompass several localities
• if  =   will encompass entire program
▪ D =  WSSi  total demand frames
• Approximation of locality

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 Working-Set Model (Cont.)
▪ if D > m  Thrashing
• m:total number of available frames
▪ Policy if D > m, then suspend or swap out one of the processes

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 Working Sets and Page Fault Rates
▪ Direct relationship between working set of a process and its
page-fault rate
▪ Working set changes over time
▪ Peaks and valleys over time

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 Practice Problem

▪ Assume we have a demand-paged memory. The page table is held in

registers. It takes 8 milliseconds to service a page fault if an empty
page is available or the replaced page is not modified, and 20
milliseconds if the replaced page is modified. Memory access time is
100 nanoseconds. Assume that the page to be replaced is modified 70
percent of the time. What is the maximum acceptable page-fault rate
for an effective access time of no more than 200 nanoseconds?

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 10.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Practice Problem

▪ Consider a demand-paging system with the following time-measured

utilizations: CPU utilization 20%; Paging disk 97.7%; Other I/O devices
5%. Which of the following will (probably) improve CPU utilization?
• Installing a faster CPU.
• Installing a bigger paging disk.
• Increasing the degree of multiprogramming.
• Decreasing the degree of multiprogramming.
• Installing more main memory.
• Installing a faster hard disk or multiple controllers with multiple hard
disks.

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 End of Chapter 10

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