Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Unit V
Routing: Global Routing - Goals and objectives, Global Routing Methods, Global routing
between blocks, Back-annotation. Detailed Routing - Goals and objectives,
Measurement of Channel Density, Left-Edge Algorithm, Area-Routing Algorithms,
Multilevel routing, Timing –Driven detailed routing, Final routing steps, Special
Routing, Circuit extraction and DRC.
(05+05) Hrs

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Routing
➢ Once the designer has floorplanned a chip and the logic cells within the flexible blocks have been placed, it is
time to make the connections by routing the chip.
➢ This is still a hard problem that is made easier by dividing it into smaller problems.
➢ Routing is usually split into
✓ global routing
✓ followed by detailed routing

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
• Routing is a crucial step in the design of integrated circuits. After floorplan, the routing step adds
wires needed to properly connect the placed components while obeying all design rules.
• In a routing problem, the input is a set of macromodules with pins on their boundaries, with optional pre-
existing wiring called pre-routes.
- Each of these macromodules is associated with a net, usually by name or number.
• The primary task of a router is to create wire segments such that all terminals assigned to the same net are
connected, no terminals assigned to different nets are connected, and all design rules are obeyed.
• Design rules usually vary considerably from layer to layer as shown in Figure 6-10.
- For example, the allowed width and spacing on the lower layers may be four or more times smaller than that
on the upper layers.
• This introduces many additional complications not faced by routers for other applications, such as printed circuit
board or Multi-Chip Module design.
• Particular difficulties arise when the rules are not simple multiples of each other, and when vias must traverse
between layers with different rules.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Global Routing
➢ The details of global routing differ slightly between cell-based ASICs, gate arrays, and FPGAs, but the
principles are the same in each case. A global router does not make any connections; it just plans them.
➢ We typically global route the whole chip (or large pieces if it is a large chip) before detail routing the whole
chip (or the pieces).
➢ There are two types of areas to global route:
➢ inside the flexible blocks
➢ between blocks (the Viterbi decoder, although a cell-based ASIC, only involved the global routing
of one large flexible block).

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Global Routing Goals and Objectives

➢ The input to the global router is a floorplan that includes the locations of all the fixed and flexible blocks; the
placement information for flexible blocks, and the locations of all the logic cells.
➢ The goal of global routing is to provide complete instructions to the detailed router on where to route every net.
➢ The objectives of global routing are one or more of the following:
➢ Minimize the total interconnect length.
➢ Maximize the probability that the detailed router can complete the routing.
➢ Minimize the critical path delay.
In both floorplanning and placement, with minimum interconnect length as an objective, it is necessary to find the
shortest total path length connecting a set of terminals.
Floorplanning and placement both assume that interconnect may be put anywhere on a rectangular grid, since at this
point nets have not been assigned to the channels, but the global router must use the wiring channels and find the actual
path.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Global Routing Methods

➢ Global routing cannot use the interconnect-length
approximations, such as the half-perimeter measure,
that were used in placement. What is needed now is
the actual path and not an approximation to the path
length. However, many of the methods used in global
routing are still based on the solutions to the tree on a
graph problem.
➢ One approach to global routing takes each net in turn
and calculates the shortest path using tree on graph
algorithms with the added restriction of using the
available channels. This process is known as
sequential routing.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

➢ As a sequential routing algorithm proceeds, some channels will become more congested since they hold more
interconnects than others. In the case of FPGAs and channeled gate arrays, the channels have a fixed channel
capacity and can only hold a certain number of interconnects.
➢ There are two different ways that a global router normally handles this problem.
✓ Using order-independent routing, a global router proceeds by routing each net, ignoring how crowded
the channels are. Whether a particular net is processed first or last does not matter; the channel assignment
will be the same.
✓ In order-independent routing, after all the interconnects are assigned to channels, the global router
returns to those channels that are the most crowded and reassigns some interconnects to other, less
crowded, channels.
➢ Alternatively, a global router can consider the number of interconnects already placed in various channels as it
proceeds. In this case the global routing is order dependent the routing is still sequential, but now the order of
processing the net will affect the results.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

➢ In contrast to sequential global-routing methods, which handle nets one at a time, hierarchical routing
handles all nets at a particular level at once. Rather than handling all of the nets on the chip at the same time,
the global-routing problem is made more tractable by dividing the chip area into levels of hierarchy.
➢ By considering only one level of hierarchy at a time, the size of the problem is reduced at each level. There
are two ways to traverse the levels of hierarchy.
✓ Starting at the whole chip, or highest level, and proceeding down to the logic cells is the top-down
approach.
✓ The bottom-up approach starts at the lowest level of hierarchy and globally routes the smallest areas
first.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Global Routing Between Blocks

➢ Figure 17.4 illustrates the global-routing problem for a cell-based ASIC.
➢ Each edge in the channel-intersection graph in Figure 17.4 (c) represents a channel.
➢ The global router is restricted to using these channels. The weight of each edge in the graph corresponds to the length of
the channel. The global router plans a path for each interconnect using this graph.

FIGURE 17.4 Global routing for a cell-based ASIC formulated as a graph problem.
(a) A cell-based ASIC with numbered channels.
(b) The channels form the edges of a graph.
(c) The channel-intersection graph. Each channel corresponds to an edge on a graph whose weight corresponds to the channel
length.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
➢ Figure 17.5 shows an example of global routing for a net with five terminals, labeled A1 through F1, for the cell-based ASIC
shown in Figure 17.4.
➢ If a designer wishes to use minimum total interconnect path length as an objective, the global router finds the minimum-
length tree shown in Figure 17.5 (b).
➢ This tree determines the channels the interconnects will use. For example, the shortest connection from A1 to B1 uses
channels 2, 1, and 5 (in that order).
➢ This is the information the global router passes to the detailed router.
➢ Figure 17.5 (c) shows that minimizing the total path length may not correspond to minimizing the path delay between two
points.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

FIGURE 17.5 Finding paths in global routing.

(a) A cell-based ASIC (from Figure 17.4) showing a single net with a fanout of four (five terminals). We have to order the
numbered channels to complete the interconnect path for terminals A1 through F1.
(b) The terminals are projected to the center of the nearest channel, forming a graph. A minimum-length tree for the net that
uses the channels and takes into account the channel capacities.
(c) The minimum-length tree does not necessarily correspond to minimum delay. If we wish to minimize the delay from
terminal A1 to D1, a different tree might be better.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Global Routing Inside Flexible Blocks

➢ Figure 17.6 (a) shows the routing resources on a sea-of-gates or channelless gate array. The gate array base
cells are arranged in 36 blocks, each block containing an array of 8-by-16gate-array base cells, making a total
of 4068 base cells.
➢ The horizontal interconnect resources are the routing channels that are formed from unused rows of the gate-
array base cells, as shown in Figure 17.6 (b) and(c).
➢ The vertical resources are feedthroughs. For example, the logic cell shown in Figure 17.6 (d) is an inverter that
contains two types of feedthrough.
➢ The inverter logic cell uses a single gate-array base cell with terminals (or connectors ) locate dat the top and
bottom of the logic cell.
➢ In a gate array the channel capacity must be a multiple of the number of horizontal tracks in the gate-array base
cell. Figure 17.6 (e) shows a gate-array base cell with seven horizontal tracks (see Section 17.2 for the factors
that determine the track width and track spacing). Thus, in this gate array, we can have a channel with a
capacity of 7, 14, 21, ... horizontal tracks but not between these values.
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➢ Figure 17.7 shows the inverter macro for the sea-of-gates array shown in Figure 17.6 . Figure 17.7 (a) shows
the base cell. Figure 17.7 (b) shows how the internal inverter wiring on m1 leaves one vertical track free as a
feedthrough in a two-level metal process (connectors placed at the top and bottom of the cell).
➢ In a three-level metal process the connectors may be placed inside the cell abutment box (Figure 17.7 c).
Figure 17.8 shows the global routing for the sea-of-gates array.
➢ We divide the array into nonoverlapping routing bins (or just bins, also called global routing cells or GRCs),
each containing a number of gate-array base cells.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
FIGURE 17.6 Gate-array global
routing.
(a) A small gate array.
(b) An enlarged view of the routing.
The top channel uses three rows
of gate-array base cells; the other
channels use only one.
(c) A further enlarged view showing
how the routing in the channels
connects to the logic cells.
(d) One of the logic cells, an inverter.
(e) There are seven horizontal wiring
tracks available in one row of
gate-array base cells the channel
capacity is thus 7.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
We need an aside to discuss our use of the term cell . Be careful not to confuse the global routing cells with gate-
array base cells (the smallest element of a gate array, consisting of a small number of n -type and p -type
transistors), or with logic cells (which are NAND gates, NOR gates, and so on).

FIGURE 17.7 The gate-array inverter from Figure 17.6 d.

(a) An oxide-isolated gate-array base cell, showing the diffusion and polysilicon layers.
(b) The metal and contact layers for the inverter in a 2LM (two-level metal) process.
(c) The routers view of the cell in a 3LM process.
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FIGURE 17.8 Global routing a gate array.

(a) A single global-routing cell (GRC or routing bin) containing 2-by-4 gate-array base cells. For this choice of routing bin the
maximum horizontal track capacity is 14, the maximum vertical track capacity is 12. The routing bin labeled C3 contains
three logic cells, two of which have feedthroughs marked 'f'. This results in the edge capacities shown.
(b) A view of the top left-hand corner of the gate array showing 28 routing bins. The global router uses the edge capacities to
find a sequence of routing bins to connect the nets.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Timing-Driven Methods
➢ Minimizing the total pathlength using a Steiner tree does not necessarily minimize the
interconnect delay of a path. Alternative tree algorithms apply in this situation, most using
the Elmore constant as a method to estimate the delay of a path (Section 17.1.2).
➢ As in timing-driven placement, there are two main approaches to timing-driven routing:
net-based and path-based. Path-based methods are more sophisticated.
➢ For example, if there is a critical path from logic cell A to B to C, the global router may
increase the delay due to the interconnect between logic cells A and B if it can reduce the
delay between logic cells B and C.
➢ Placement and global routing tools may or may not use the same algorithm to estimate net
delay. If these tools are from different companies, the algorithms are probably different.
➢ The algorithms must be compatible, however. There is no use performing placement to
minimize predicted delay if the global router uses completely different measurement
methods.
➢ Companies that produce floor planning and placement tools make sure that the output is
compatible with different routing tools often to the extent of using different algorithms to
target different routers.
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Back Annotation
➢ After global routing is complete it is possible to accurately predict what the length of each
interconnect in every net will be after detailed routing, probably to within 5 percent.
➢ The global router can give us not just an estimate of the total net length (which was all we
knew at the placement stage), but the resistance and capacitance of each path in each net.
This RC information is used to calculate net delays.
➢ We can back-annotate this net delay information to the synthesis tool for in-place
optimization or to a timing verifier to make sure there are no timing surprises.
➢ Differences in timing predictions at this point arise due to the different ways in which the
placement algorithms estimate the paths and the way the global router actually builds the
paths.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Detailed Routing
➢ The global routing step determines the channels to be used for each interconnect. Using this information the
detailed router decides the exact location and layers for each interconnect. Figure 17.9 (a) shows typical
metal rules. These rules determine the m1 routing pitch ( track pitch , track spacing , or just pitch ). We can
set the m1 pitch to one of three values:
1. via-to-via ( VTV ) pitch (or spacing)
2. via-to-line ( VTL or line-to-via ) pitch
3. line-to-line ( LTL ) pitch
➢ The same choices apply to the m2 and other metal layers if they are present. Via-to-via spacing allows the
router to place vias adjacent to each other. Via-to-line spacing is hard to use in practice because it restricts
the router to non-adjacent vias. Using line-to-line spacing prevents the router from placing avia at all
without using jogs and is rarely used. Via-to-via spacing is the easiest for a router to use and the most
common. Using either via-to-line or via-to-via spacing means that the routing pitch is larger than the
minimum metal pitch.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
FIGURE 17.9 The metal routing pitch.
(a) An example of L-based metal design rules for M1
and via1 (M1/M2 via).
(b) Via-to-via pitch for adjacent vias.
(c) Via-to-line (or line-to-via) pitch for nonadjacent
vias.
(d) Line-to-line pitch with no vias.

FIGURE 17.10
(a) A large m1 to m2 via. The black squares represent
the holes (or cuts) that are etched in the insulating
material between the m1 and 2 layers.
(b) A m1 to m2 via (a via1).
(c) A contact from m1 to diffusion or polysilicon
(a contact).
(d) A via1 placed over (or stacked over) a contact.
(e) A m2 to m3 via(a via2)
(f) A via2 stacked over a via1 stacked over a contact.
Notice that the black square in parts bc do not
represent the actual location of the cuts. The black
squares are offset so you can recognize stacked vias
and contacts.
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FIGURE 17.11 An expanded view of part of a cell-based ASIC.

(a) Both channel 4 and channel 5 use m1 in the horizontal direction and m2 in the vertical direction. If the logic cell
connectors are on m2 this requires vias to be placed at every logic cell connector in channel 4.
(b) Channel 4 and 5 are routed with m1along the direction of the channel spine (the long direction of the channel). Now vias
are required only for nets 1 and 2, at the intersection of the channels.
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FIGURE 17.12 The different types of connections that can be made to a cell. This cell has connectors at the top and bottom of
the cell (normal for cells intended for use with a two-level metal process) and internal connectors (normal for logic cells
intended for use with a three-level metal process). The interconnect and connections are drawn to scale.
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FIGURE 17.13 Terms used in channel routing. (a) A channel with four horizontal tracks. (b) An expanded view of the left-
hand portion of the channel showing (approximately to scale) how the m1 and m2 layers connect to the logic cells on either
side of the channel. (c) The construction of a via1 (m1/m2 via).
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Detailed Routing Goals and Objectives

➢ The goal of detailed routing is to complete all the connections between logic cells.
➢ The most common objective is to minimize one or more of the following:
❖ The total interconnect length and area
❖ The number of layer changes that the connections have to make
❖ The delay of critical paths
➢ Minimizing the number of layer changes corresponds to minimizing the number of vias that add parasitic
resistance and capacitance to a connection.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Measurement of Channel Density

FIGURE 17.14 The definitions of local channel density and global channel density. Lines represent the m1
and m2 interconnect in the channel to simplify the drawing.
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➢ We can describe a channel-routing problem by specifying two lists of nets: one for the top edge of the channel
and one for the bottom edge. The position of the net number in the list gives the column position. The net
number zero represents a vacant or unused terminal. Figure 17.14 shows a channel with the numbered
terminals to be connected along the top and the bottom of the channel.
➢ We call the number of nets that cross a line drawn vertically anywhere in a channel the local density. We call
the maximum local density of the channel the global density or sometimes just channel density. Figure 17.14
has a channel density of 4. Channel density is an important measure in routing. It tells a router the absolute
fewest number of horizontal interconnects that it needs at the point where the local density is highest.
➢ In two-level routing (all the horizontal interconnects run on one routing layer), the channel density determines
the minimum height of the channel.
➢ The channel capacity is the maximum number of interconnects that a channel can hold. If the channel density
is greater than the channel capacity, that channel definitely cannot be routed (to learn how channel density is
calculated, see Section 17.2.5 ).

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Algorithms
➢ We start discussion of routing methods by simplifying the general channel-routing problem. The restricted
channel-routing problem limits each net in a channel to use only one horizontal segment. In other words, the
channel router uses only one trunk for each net. This restriction has the effect of minimizing the number of
connections between the routing layers.
➢ This is equivalent to minimizing the number of vias used by the channel router in a two-layer metal
technology. Minimizing the number of vias is an important objective in routing a channel, but it is not
always practical. Sometimes constraints will force a channel router to use jogs or other methods to complete
the routing
✓ Left-Edge Algorithm
✓ Area-routing Algorithm

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Left-Edge Algorithm
➢ The left-edge algorithm (LEA) is the basis for several routing algorithms [Hashimoto and Stevens, 1971]. The LEA
applies to two-layer channel routing, using one layer for the trunks and the other layer for the branches. For example, m1
may be used in the horizontal direction and m2 in the vertical direction.
➢ The LEA proceeds as follows:
1. Sort the nets according to the leftmost edges of the nets’ segment.
2. Assign the first net on the list to the first free track.
3. Assign the next net on the list, which will fit, to the track.
4. Repeat this process from step 3 until no more nets will fit in the current track.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 4 until all nets have been assigned to tracks.
6. Connect the net segments to the top and bottom of the channel.
➢ Figure 17.15 illustrates the LEA. The algorithm works as long as none of the branches touch many ways occur if there are
terminals in the same column belonging to different nets. In this situation, we have to make sure that the trunk that
connects to the top of the channel is placed above the lower trunk. Otherwise, two branches will overlap and short the nets
together. In the next section, we shall examine this situation more closely.
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FIGURE 17.15 Left-edge algorithm.

(a) Sorted list of segments.
(b) Assignment to tracks.
(c) Completed channel route (with m1 and m2 interconnect represented by lines).
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Area-Routing Algorithm
➢ There are many algorithms used for the detailed routing of general-shaped areas(see the paper by Ohtsuki in [Ohtsuki,
1986]). Many of these were originally developed for PCB wiring. The first group we shall cover and the earliest to be used
historically are the grid-expansion or maze-running algorithms. A second group of methods, which are more efficient, are
the line-search algorithms.
➢ Figure 17.18 illustrates the Lee maze-running algorithm. The goal is to find a path from X to Y i.e., from the start (or
source) to the finish (or target), avoiding any obstacles. The algorithm is often called wave propagation because it sends out
waves, which spread out like those created by dropping a stone into a pond.

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FIGURE 17.18 The Lee maze-running algorithm.

➢ The algorithm finds a path from source (X) to
target (Y) by emitting a wave from both the
source and the target at the same time.
➢ Successive outward moves are marked in each
bin.
➢ Once the target is reached, the path is found by
backtracking (if there is a choice of bins with
equal labeled values, we choose the bin that
avoids changing direction). (The original form
of the Lee algorithm uses a single wave.)

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
➢ Algorithms that use lines rather than waves to search for connections are more efficient than algorithms based on the Lee
algorithm. Figure 17.19 illustrates the Hightower algorithm, a line-search algorithm (or line-probe algorithm ):
1. Extend lines from both the source and target toward each other.
2. When an extended line, known as an escape line, meets an obstacle, choose a point on the escape line from which to
project another escape line at right angles to the old one. This point is the escape point.
3. Place an escape point on the line so that the next escape line just misses the edge of the obstacle. Escape lines
emanating from the source and target intersect to form the path.
FIGURE 17.19 Hightower area routing algorithm.
(a) Escape lines are constructed from source (X) and target (Y)
toward each other until they hit obstacles.
(b) An escape point is found on the escape line so that the next
escape perpendicular to the original misses the next obstacle.
The path is complete when the escape lines from the source
and target meet.

✓ The Hightower algorithm is faster and requires less memory

than methods based on the Lee algorithm.
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Multilevel Routing
➢ Using two-layer routing, if the logic cells do not contain any m2, it is possible to complete some routing in m2 using over-
the-cell (OTC) routing.
➢ Sometimes poly is used for short connections in the channel in a two-level metal technology; this is known as 2.5-layer
routing.
➢ Using a third level of metal in three-layer routing, there is a choice of approaches.
1. Reserved-layer routing restricts all the interconnect on each layer to flow in one direction in a given routing area (for
example, in a channel, either parallel or perpendicular to the channel spine).
2. Unreserved-layer routing moves in both horizontal and vertical directions on a given layer. Most routers use reserved
routing.
3. Reserved three-level metal routing offers another choice: Either use m1 and m3 for horizontal routing (parallel to the
channel spine), with m2 for vertical routing (HVH routing) or use VHV routing.
➢ Some processes have more than three levels of metal. Sometimes the upper one or two metal layers have a coarser pitch
than the lower layers and are used in multilevel routing for power and clock lines rather than for signal interconnect.

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Figure 17.20 shows an example of three-
layer channel routing.
The logic cells are 64𝜆 high, the m1
routing pitch is 8𝜆, and the m2 and m3
routing pitches are 16𝜆.
The channel in Figure 17.20 is the same as
the channel using two-layer metal shown
in Figure 17.13, but using three-level metal
reduces the channel height from
40𝜆 (= 5 ¥ 8𝜆) to 16𝜆.
Submicron processes aim to utilise the
same metal pitch across all metal layers.
This makes routing easier but processing
more difficult.
FIGURE 17.20 Three-level channel routing. In this diagram, the m2 and m3routing pitch is set to twice the m1 routing pitch.
Routing density can be increased further if all the routing pitches can be made equal a difficult process challenge.
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Timing-Driven Detailed Routing

➢ In detailed routing, the global router has already set the path the interconnect will follow. At this point, little can
be done to improve timing except to reduce the number of vias, alter the interconnect width to optimize delay,
and minimize overlap capacitance.
➢ The gains here are relatively small, but for very long-branching nets, even small gains may be important. For
high-frequency clock nets, it may be important to shape and chamfer (round) the interconnect to match
impedances at branches and control reflections at corners.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Final Routing Steps

➢ If the algorithms to estimate congestion in the floorplanning tool accurately and perfectly reflected the algorithms used by
the global router and detailed router, routing completion should be guaranteed. Often, however, the detailed router will not
be able to completely route all the nets. These problematic nets are known as unroutes.
➢ Routers handle this situation in one of two ways.
1. The first method leaves the problematic nets unconnected.
2. The second method completes all interconnects anyway, but with some design-rule violations (the problematic nets
may be shortened to other nets, for example).
➢ Some tools flag these problems as a warning (in fact, there can be no more serious error).

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
➢ If there are many unroutes, the designer needs to discover the reason and return to the floor planner and change channel sizes
(for a cell-based ASIC) or increase the base-array size (for a gate array). Returning to the global router and changing bin
sizes or adjusting the algorithms may also help.
➢ In drastic cases, it may be necessary to change the floorplan. If just a handful of difficult nets remain to be rerouted, some
tools allow the designer to perform hand edits using a rip-up and reroute router (sometimes this is done automatically by the
detailed router as a last phase in the routing procedure anyway). This capability also permits Engineering Change Orders
(ECOs) corresponding to the little yellow wires on a PCB.
➢ One of the last steps in routing is via-removing the detailed router looks to see if it can eliminate any vias (which can
contribute a significant amount to the interconnect resistance) by changing layers or making other modifications to the
completed routing.
➢ Routing compaction can then be performed as the final step.

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Special Routing
➢ The routing of nets that require special attention, clock and power nets, for example, is normally done before
detailed routing of signal nets.
➢ The architecture and structure of these nets are performed as part of floorplanning, but the sizing and topology
of these nets are finalised as part of the routing step.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Clock Routing
➢ Gate arrays normally use a clock spine (a regular grid), eliminating the need for special routing (see Section
16.1.6, Clock Planning).
➢ The clock distribution grid is designed at the same time as the gate-array base to ensure a minimum clock
skew and minimum clock latency given power dissipation and clock buffer area limitations.
➢ Cell-based ASICs may use either a clock spine, a clock tree, or a hybrid approach.
➢ Figure 17.21 shows how a clock router may minimize clock skew in a clock spine by making the path lengths,
and thus net delays, to every leaf node equalusing jogs in the interconnect paths if necessary.
➢ More clock routers perform clock-tree synthesis (automatically choosing the depth and structure of the clock
tree) and clock-buffer insertion (equalizing the delay to the leaf nodes by balancing interconnect delays and
buffer delays).

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

FIGURE 17.21 Clock routing.

(a) A clock network for the cell-based ASIC from Figure 16.11.
(b) Equalizing the interconnect segments between CLK and all destinations (by including jogs if necessary) minimizes clock
skew.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Power Routing

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

The problems with this approach include placing the ESD and latch-up protection circuits required in the I/O pads
(normally kept widely separated from core logic) adjacent to the logic cells in the core.
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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Circuit Extraction and DRC

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

SPF, RSPF, and DSPF

➢ The standard parasitic format (SPF) (developed by Cadence [1990], now in the hands of OVI) describes
interconnect delay and loading due to parasitic resistance and capacitance.
➢ There are three different forms of SPF:
1. Regular SPF
2. Reduced SPF
3. Detailed SPF
➢ Regular SPF and Reduced SPF contain the same information, but in different formats, and model the behavior
of interconnect; the third form of SPF (Detailed SPF) describes the actual parasitic resistance and capacitance
components of anet. F

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

FIGURE 17.22 The regular and reduced

standard parasitic format (SPF) models for
interconnect.
(a) An example of an interconnect
network with fanout. The driving-
point admittance of the interconnect
network
(b) The SPF model of the interconnect.
(c) The lumped-capacitance interconnect
model.
(d) The lumped-RC interconnect model.
(e) The PI segment interconnect model

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]
➢ The reduced SPF (RSPF) contains the same information as regular SPF, but uses the SPICE format.
➢ The detailed SPF (DSPF) shows the resistance and capacitance of each segment in a net, again in a SPICE format.
➢ There are no models or assumptions calculating the net delays in this format. Here is an example DSPF file that describes
the interconnect shown in Figure 17.23 (a):
FIGURE 17.23 The detailed standard parasitic format (DSPF) for interconnect representation.
(a) An example network with two m2 paths connected to a logic cell, INV1. The grid shows the coordinates.
(b) The equivalent DSPF circuit corresponding to the DSPF file in the text.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Design-Rule Check -DRC

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Mask Preparation
➢ Final preparation for the ASIC artwork includes the addition of a mask work symbol (M inside a circle),
copyright symbol (C inside a circle), and company logos on each mask layer.
➢ The final output of the design process is normally a magnetic tape written in Caltech Intermediate Format
(CIF, a public domain text format) or GDSII Stream (formerly also called Calma Stream, now Cadence
Stream), which is a proprietary binary format. The tape is processed by the ASIC vendor or foundry (the fab)
before being transferred to the mask shop.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

Questions
1. Explain Routing and its types in detail with proper example.
2. Explain the goals and objectives of global routing in detail.
3. Explain the goals and objectives of detailed routing and explain the routing method in an ASIC Physical Design.
4. Describe the following:
i. Global routing
ii. Local routing
[Link] routing
5. Explain global routing between blocks.
6. Describe briefly timing-driven methods in routing.
7. Explain the following:
i. Left edge algorithm
ii. Area-routing algorithm
[Link] area routing algorithm
[Link] of channel density
8. Illustrate the Detail routing to complete the connections between logic cells.
9. With a neat diagram, explain multilevel routing.
10. Discuss CLK routing and Power routing of special routing in detail
11. Explain Circuit extraction with a proper example.
12. Enumerate the Design Rule Check (DRC) with its types
13. Briefly explain circuit extraction and DRC in ASIC Design.

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 Application – Specific Integrated Circuits [ASIC]

THANK YOU…☺

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