@ IT Series = The Concepts of Information Technology 2.1 Application Software Application software is used to perform various applications or tasks on the computer, Today, a wide variety of application software is available to meet any user need. Individual and businesses use application software to perform hundreds of tasks such ‘Writing letters ‘Making presentations Managing finances “Managing business inventory Preparing tax returns Designing and editing images Accessing the Web-based resources Participating in videoconference Playing games 2.2 Forms of Application Software Application software is available in the following forms: 2.2.1 Packaged Software Packaged software or retail software is a copyrighted available for different types of users, It is not developed for a particular user or organization. Examples of packaged software are word processing and spreadsheet software. Many packaged software are also available on the Web. 2.2.2 Custom Software Custom software is designed for a particular customer or organization. It is developed to meet the exact requirements of a particular customer or organization. The cost of customized software is more than packaged software. A software that is developed for a particular university is an example of customized software. The software ean be developed by single programmer or a team of programmers. 2.2.3 Shareware Shareware is a copyrighted software that is available free of cost for a limited time period. The user can use shareware for a certain time period, The user has to purchase it if he wants to use it further, The shareware software should be uninstalled or removed from the computer if the user does not want to use it any more. Normally, shareware software stops working properly when the time period is expired. It displays a message to the user to purchase it. Shareware is a version of software that is used by the users for evaluation purpose.. Software developers provide shareware software to the users to check and evaluate its performance. A large number of shareware software are available on Internet. The users can download and use these software for evaluation. 2.2.4 Freeware Freeware is a copyrighted software that is available free of cost for unlimited time period. Demo disks often come undler this category. Many software programs are produced for educational purpose, These programs are available free of cost to all. ed- Chapter 2 => Application Software 6 2.2.5 Public Domain Software Public domain software is also free software. It is basically donated for public use. It has no copyright restrictions. Any person can use or distribute public domain software to others without any cost. 2.2.6 Open Software Open source software is provided for use, modification and redistribution without any cost. Anyone can modify the instructions of software and redistribute it. The open source software usually can be downloaded from the Internet. 2.2.7 Web Applications Web application or Web app is a type of software that is accessed with a Web browser, Most Web apps do not require any installation on local computer or handheld device. The software typically runs on a remote computer connected to the Internet or network. The computer requires a Web browser and an Internet connection to use the Web apps. The user can visit the specific website and use the required Web app. Many Web apps are available free of cost whereas some require a fee to use. The use of Web-based software is growing rapidly, Many business software services are offered as SaaS like scheduling, customer service, accounting. project management ete. ‘These applications require a subscription fee per user per month. The companies that deliver ‘SaaS are called application service providers (ASPs). Web apps are examples of cloud computing. They are also known as Software as a Service (SaaS) or cloudware. Some popular Web apps include Hotmail, Google Docs, OneDrive and ThinkFree Online. Advantages * Web app can be accessed from any computer with a Web browser and an Internet connection. Some Web apps can also be accessed via a mobile phone and other mobile devices. ‘The data is usually stored on Web app's website and can be accessed from anywhere. Web apps are always up to date and the user does not have to install updates. Web apps do not require local storage space. Disadvantages Web apps may become slow than applications stored on a local hard drive. Web apps typically have fewer features than applications installed locally. Many Web apps put a limit on the file size of the documents. ‘The user cannot access the Web app and stored data if the server goes down or if there is no Internet access. 5 * The data may be more vulnerable to exposure or loss because it is out of user control 2.2.8 Mobile Apps Mobile app are designed for handheld devices such as smartphone, tablet computer or enhanced media player. They are generally small applications sold through an online apps ‘store, They are downloaded and installed on the handheld devices. Many apps are available {or free or at very nominal fee. Different types of mobile apps are available today such as fms, entertainment apps, business apps, calendars and communication apps etc. Many banks hlso provide mobile app for mobile banking. eee4 IT Series > The Concepts of Information Technology Most handheld devices can use both Web apps and mobile apps. The difference is that Web apps run on a remote computer whereas mobile apps run from the handheld device, Games and entertainment seem to dominate mobile apps, whereas shopping and social apps dominate the Web apps category. Installing Mobile Apps ‘The mobile apps can be installed on the handheld devices by downloading the app from app store. For example, the apps for iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch can be downloaded from the online Apple App Store. Most handheld devices have an icon to open the app store for the device. The user can select an app and pay for it if required, The installation process places the app’s program file on the storage device and creates an ican to launch the app. 2.2.9 Portable Software Portable software is designed to run from removable storage devices such as a CD or — USB flash drive. These programs do not need any installation and can be run on almost any computer. No configuration data is stored on the hard disk. There is no need to insert any entries in Windows Registry about the software. Many portable software are available including LibreOffice Portable, Thunderbird, Firefox and FileZilla which are designed to ran from USB flash drives.Chapter 3 > System Unit Components an 3.1 System Unit System unit is a case that contains different electronic components of the computer used to process data. The electronic components in the system unit are connected to motherboard. All computer systems have a system unit, System unit is made of plastic or metal to protect the components inside it. The system unit typically contains motherboard, processor, memory, hard disk and other electronic components. Figure 3.1: System unit components of a typical computer System units are available in different shapes and sizes. The system unit of a desktop computer stands vertically on the desk called tower model. Another type called all-in-one computer contains the system unit and the monitor in the same case. In laptop computers, and pointing devices are built on the top of the system unit. The system unit in the slate tablet is behind the display screen whereas the system unit in a convertible tablet is below the keyboard,92 IT Series => The Concepts of Information Technology Figure 3.2: System units in different devices 3.2 Motherboard Motherboard is also called system board or main board. It is the most important circuit board in system unit. It is a communication medium for the entire computer system. All components or devices of the computer are connected to the motherboard. The motherboard contains processor, memory, expansion slots, ports and connectors etc, It may also include integrated peripherals such as video, sounds and network adapters. It enables the user to attach different devices to it such as keyboard, printer and scanner etc. 3.3 Central Processing Unit CPU stands for central processing unit. It is the brain of the computer. It is the most important component of a computer. It is also called processor. A computer cannot work without CPU. All computers must have a central processing unit. CPU is located on the motherboard. It carries out most of the work of a computer. CPU performs all operations on data according to the given instructions. It executes instructions and tells other parts of computer what to do. Most of the work consists of calculations and data transfer.he (Chapter 3 => System Unit Components 3 All functions of processor usually are on a single chip in personal computers. The manufacturers of processor chip are also providing multi-core processors. A single chip that Matains two or more separate processors is known as multi-core processor. Multi-core ‘reduces access time and increases overall processing. For example, if one core is busy in executing aft instruction, another can handle incoming data or instructions. It reduces energy consumption over multiple separate processors. Multi-core processors include dual- core, quad-core, six-core and eight-core. AMD and Intel offer multi-core processors. ‘Two most common multi-core processors are as follows: Dual-core Processor A dual-core processor chip contains two separate processors. 2. Quad-core Processor A quad-core processor chip contains four separate processors. rae Single core processor Dual core proces: Figure 33: Multi-core processors CPU consists of two main units known as arithmetic & logical unit and control unit. ‘These components work together to perform processing operations. 1. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) . ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of instructions takes place in this part. All arithmetic and logical operations are performed in ALU. It consists of two following units: 1. Arithmetic Unit Arithmetic unit of ALU performs basic arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. i, Logic Unit Logic unit of ALU performs logical operations like comparing two ” data items to find which data item is greater than, equal to, ot less than the other. 2, Control Unit Control unit is an important component of CPU. It acts like a supervisor of the computer. It does not exectite program instruction by itself, It controls and coordinates all activities of computer system. It performs this task by issuing necessary commands to different components of computer, Control unit also provides clock pulses that are used to Fegulate and control all operations in the computer system. Important operations performed by control unit are as follows: 1. It fetches instructions from the main memory. 2. Itinterprets the instructions to find what operation is to be performed. 3. Itcontrnts the execution of instructions.4 IT Series => The Concepts of Information Technology 3.3.1 Machine Cycle CPU uses the machine cycle to process each instruction, The four cycle are fetch, decode, execute and store. 1. Fetch Instruction fetch is a process of getting an instruction from the memory to execute it, ‘This process is performed by the control unit. 2. Decode The control unit decodes the instruction. This process examines the nature of instruction to determine what further operations should be taken. CU directs to move the required data from memory to ALU. 3. Execute ‘After decoding the instruction and getting the required data, CPU finally executes that instruction. The instruction is executed by ALU. 4. Storing ‘The process of writing the result to the memory is called storing. ‘These four operations collectively are called a machine cycle or instruction cycle, The steps of machine time required to fetch and decode instruction is called Instruction time or i-time. The time required to execute and store is called Execution time or e-time.Chapter 3=> System Unit Components 3.3.2 Instruction Set’ A set of all instructions that can be performed by a CPU is called instruction set, The instruction set consists of the following types of instructions: + Arithmetic Instructions. ‘+ Logical Instructions Data Transfer Instructions © Control Transfer Instructions 1. Arithmetic Instructions The instructions used to perform arithmetic operations are called arithmetic instructions. Different arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These instructions are executed by the arithmetic & logic unit of CPU. 2. Logical Instructions The instructions used to perform logical operations are called logical instructions. A logical operation is the comparison of two data values. Possible comparisons are: © Greater than (>) © Equal to (=) * Less than (<) ‘These instructions are also executed by the Arithmetic & Logic unit of CPU. 3. Data Transfer Instruction ‘The instructions used to transfer data from one component to another component during program execution are called data transfer instructions 4. Control Transfer Instruction ‘The instructions used to change the sequence of instructions of a program are called control transfer instructions. These instructions transfer the execution control te a certain part of program instead of next instruction. 3.3.3 System Clock System clock is an electronic component. It generates electric signals at a fast speed. It controls all functions of the computer using clock ticks. These ticks of system clock are known as clock cycle and set the speed of CPU. Computer clock can tick from millions to billions times in one second. The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate. Processor speed is measured in MHz and GHz. A Hertz means machine cycles per second. Megahertz (MHz) is a million of cycles per second. Gigahertz (GHz) means a billion of cycles per second. For example, a processor of 3.0 GHz can work ata rate of 3 billion machine ¢ycles per second. . ‘The power of a CPU is determined by the speed at which it processes data. System clock is one of the major factors that affect a computer speed. A CPU that has a higher clock Speed can process more instructions per second than a CPU with a lower clock speed. For ‘example, Core i7 processor running at 3,2 GHz will be faster than Core i7 processor running a it 2.66 GHz if all other components remain the same. Today's fastest CPUs have clock speed of more than 3 GHz,eg ei © a: 1 Figure 3.5: Pipelining 3.3.6 Registers A register is a small high-speed memory inside CPU. The CPU contains a number of registers. Registers are used to store information being processed. These are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. The temporary results during processing are also stored in registers. Each register has a predefined function. Register size determines how much information it can store. The size of registers is in bytes. Each byte can store one character of data, A register can be of 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes. Bigger _ size of register increases the performance of CPU. Control unit manages registers for the following purposes: «* Input the instructions or data * Store the instructions or data * Transfer the instructions or data + Perform arithmetic or logical operations at high speed. Different registers are as follows: 1. Memory Address Register (MAR) Memory address register is used to store memory address being used by the CPU. When CPU wants to read or write data in memory, it stores the address of that memory location in this register. 2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR) Memory buffer register is used to store the data coming from the memory or going to the memory. 3. Program Counter (PC) Program counter is used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of program counter is incremented. It ‘now refers to the next instruction. 4. Instruction Register (IR) Instruction register is used to store the fetched instructions, The instruction is also decoded in this register.98 IT Series => The Concepts of Information Technology 5, General purpose Register registers are used in mathematical and logical operations, These General-purpose registers are part of ALU, Different general-purpose registers are as follows: It is used for arithmetic and data operations. Accumulator Register Base Register It is used for arithmetic and data movement. It has special addressing capabilities. Counter Register It is used for counting purpose. It acts as a counter for repetitions oF loops. Data Register It is used for division and multiplications. 1 to 4 bytes. The two-byte data registers AX, BX, CX, pec eae o parts are separately accessible. The lower-order * DX contain two parts of 8-bit size. These bytes are AL, BL, Ct and DL. The high-order bytes are AH, BH, CH and DH. The modern processors use the registers of 4 bytes (32 bits) known as EAX, EB) X, ECX and EDX. Figure 3.6: Dilferent Types of Registers 6. Address or Segment Registers is a block of memory. Address or segment registers are used to store the address of memory blocks of the instruction being executed. There are four segment registers. These are CS, DS, ES and SS. The size of each register is two bytes. These registers arc used with IP register or index registers Di and SI. Different segment registers are as follows: Code Segment (CS) It is used to store the base location of all executable instructions in the program. It is used with IP register tq fetch program instruction — from memory. Data Segment(DS) _It is used as the default base location for memory variables. It is used with DI or SI registers to refer to the data in memory. Extra Segment (ES) _It is used as an additional base location for memory variables. Stack Segment (SS) _It contains the base location of the current program stack.Chapter 3 > System Unit Compo: nents: 99 7. Stack Control Register A stack is set of memory locations in which data is stored and retrieved in an order. This order is called Last-In-First-Out (LIFO). The data item stored at the top of stack is retrieved before retrieving the item below it. Stack control registers are used to manage stack in computer. Two special registers SP and BP are used for this purpose. DI, SL SP é& BP cari either be used as 2 byte register or 4 byte registers. The names of 4-byte stack control registers are EDI, ESI, ESP and EBP. §. Flag Registers Flag registers are used to indicate a particular condition, The size of flag register is one or two-byte. Each byte of flag registers is further divided into eight bits. The data in flag register is stored in 5 distinct bits. Each bit of the flag register indicates a flag or condition. Some flag registers are Zero flag, Carry flag, Parity flag, Sign flag and Overflow flag.— 304 IT Series = The Concepts of Information Technology 3.5.1 RAM RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called direct access 7 Random access means that each individual byte in entire memory can be accessed directly, RAM is used to store data and instructions temporarily. A program must be loaded into RAM before execution. RAM is a volatile memory. It means that its contents are lost when the power is turned off. RAM is a read/write memory. CPU can read data from RAM and write data to RAM. It is used to store data and instruction while it is being executed. RAM is also called main memory or primary storage. RAM plays very important role in the processing speed of a computer. A bigger RAM size provides larger amount of space for processing. So the processing speed is increased. The amount of data that can be stored in RAM is measured in bytes. Most desktop computers typically have 4 GB of RAM or more. Different types of RAM are as follows: 1. DRAM DRAM stands for Dynamic Random [Link]. It is used in most of the computers. tis the least expensive kind of RAM. It requires an electric current to maintain its Glectrical state. The electrical charge of DRAM decreases with time that may result in loss of data. DRAM is recharged or refreshed again and again to maintain its data. The processor cannot access the data of DRAM when it is being refreshed. That is why it is slow. 2. SRAM SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It can store data without any need of frequent recharging. CPU does not need to wait to access data from SRAM during processing. That is why it is faster than DRAM. It utilizes less power than DRAM. SRAM is more expensive. It is normally used to build a very fast memory known as cache memory. 3. MRAM MRAM stands for Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory. It stores data using magnetic charges instead of electrical charges. MRAM uses far less power than other RAM technologies so it is ideal for portable devices. It also has greater storage capacity. It has faster access times than RAM. It retains its contents when the power is removed from computer. Differences between SRAM and DRAM The difference between SRAM and DRAM is as follows: __Itis slower than SRAM. 2._Itis more expensive. 2. Itis less expensive. 3. It does not need to be power-refreshed. | 3. Ithas to be refreshed after each read operation. 4. Itutilizes more power. 5. Itholds data dynamically not 5, Itholds data indefinitely as long as the puter is turned on. indefinitely. com &Itis more complex and less compact. _| 6._It is less complex and more compact.Contisl Bus Direction of buses Figure 3.15: CPU reading data from RAM ‘The following steps are performed when CPU wants to write data to RAM: 1. CPU places the write request on control bus. 2. CPU places the address of the word where to write data on address bus. 3. Memory unit gets ready to do the operation. 4. CPU puts data on the data bus. 5. Memory unit reads the data and places it in the required word. CF oy Conwet Bus Direction of buses: Figure 3.16: CPU writing data to RAM 3.5.4 Read-Only Memory (ROM) ROM stands for read only memory. The instructions in ROM prepare use. These instructions can only be read but cannot be changed or deleted. It is not possible to write new information or instructions into the ROM. ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is switched off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost. Therefore, ROM is called non-volatile memory. The information in ROM is stored by the manufacturer. When the computer is ~ switched on, the instructions in the ROM are automatically loaded into the of the computer. ROM contains a small set of instructions called ROM BIOS, BIOS stands for Basic 7 Input / Output System. These instructions tell the computer how to access hard disk, find operating system and load the operating system in RAM. Different types of ROM are as follows: 1, PROM . PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write data and programs on it using special devices. The user can write data and instructions on it only once. If there is any error in writing the instructions, the error cannot be removed from PROM. The chip becomes unusable. achapter 39 System Unit Components 107 2. EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is sniatly blank. The user or manufacturer ean write data and programs on it using special saves The data and programs written on it can be erased with special devices using ieaviolet rays. The user then can write mew program on it. 3, EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In this memory, user can erase and write instructions with the help of electrical pulses. If there is any error in writing the instructions, the user can erase the contents electronically. The contents of EEPROM can be modified easily. 3.55 Difference between RAM and ROM ‘The difference between RAM and ROM is as follows: — RAM Is a temporary memory. The data can be read and written to ROM is permanent memory. “The instructions written in ROM can only be RAM and can be changed or deleted. read but cannot be changed or deleted. Instructions in RAM change Ttis not possible to write new information or continuously as new programs are new instructions into the ROM, so ROM is executed and new data is processed. T When the power is turned off, all the and data are erased from RAM. So RAM is a volatile memory. “The instructions are written imto the RAM at the time of execution. non-volatile memory. When the power is turned off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost, therefore ROM is non-volatile ‘The instructions are written into ROM at manufacturing time. 3.5.6 Difference between PROM and EPROM ‘The difference between PROM and EPROM is as follows: . PROM isa programmable memory. 1. EPROM is electronically programmable memory. 2. The user can write instructions on EPROM many tines. 3. ‘The instructions written by the user can be erased from EPROM. ‘The user can write instructions on PROM only once. |The instructions written by the user cannot be erased from PROM. there is an error while writing on PROM, itbecomes unusable. = It provides less usability as instructions | 5. It provides more usability as instructions are written only once. are written many times. 3.5.7 Cache Memory A cache (pronounced *cash’) is a small and very fast memory. It is designed to speed up the transfer of data and instructions, It is located inside or close to the CPU chip. It is faster than RAM. “The data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.IT Series > The Cor of Information Technol The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the first time. A copy of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The next time the CPU needs that data or instructions, it first looks in cache. If the required data is found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of main memory, It speeds up the working of CPU, Figure 3.17: Cache Memory Levels of Cache Memory ‘A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level numbers refer to distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest, All levels of cache memory are faster than RAM. The cache closest to CPU is always faster but generally costs more and stores less data then other level of cache. Different levels of cache memory are as follows: 1, Level 1 Cache It is also called: primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip. It has small capacity from 8 KB to 128 KB. 2 Level2 Cache It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more i.e. from 64KB to 16MB. The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512KB to SMB. 3. Level 3 Cache This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache. The personal computer often has up to 8MB of L3 cache. + to update its contents easily. Flash memory chips Jets, mobile phones, digital cameras, printers and are stored on flash memory. Some portable startup instructions are also built into many de’ digital cameras etc. The data in smartpht media players store music on flash memory cl 3.5.9 CMOS CMOS stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. It stores configuration information of computer. The information include the type of disk drives, keyboord and monitor, current date && time and other startup information required during booting process. He i seni tT Figure 3.18: CMOS112 IT Series -> The Concepts of Information Technology 3.7 Ports : A port is an interface or connection point through which peters ae) ees to the computer. A peripheral device is a component meets ost — ~ = oan cae ifferent of ports to cor ferent | “ typeof pen opens al crt spect: The speed one measured in lob ts per second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps) Figure 3.25: Ports in different devices Ports use different types of connectors. A connector joins the cable to a port. The connector at the end of a cable is attached to the port. The connector at the other end of cable is attached a port on the peripheral device, 3.7.1 Types of Ports Different types of ports are as follows: 1. Serial Ports A type of interface that transmits one bit at a time is called serial port. It is usually used to connect devices that do not require fast data transmission like mouse and keyboard etc. Serial ports are often known as communications (COM) ports. Data travels over a serial port at 115 kilobits per second, Serial ports were one of the earliest Ports used in the computer. A serial connector is used to plug into a serial port. Some serial ports used 25-pin connectors for their serial port: The serial port in the later computers have only nine pins. Serial ports are older ports and not typically found on modern computers.Figure 3.24: Types of ports 2. Parallel Ports A type of interface that transmits many bits at a time is called parallel port. It is used to connect devices that transfer many bits at a time and require fast data transmission like printer and scanner etc, Parallel ports are often referred to as Line Printer (LPT) ports. The speed of parallel ports is 12 Mbps. Parallel are older ports and not typically found on modern computers. 3. Universal Serial Bus Port USB is the most common type of port to connect devices to a computer. It is used to connect devices such as keyboard, mouse, digital camera, scanner, printer, external hard disk and USB flash drive ete. It can connect up to 127 different peripheral devices with a single connector type. USB ports can be used as a power supply for different devices like smartphone and tablets etc. Most laptops and desktop computers normally come with at least two USB ports. USB ports support hot swapping and Plug-and-Play (PnP). Hot swapping is the ability to connect and disconnect devices without shutting down the computer. Plug-and-Play enables a computer to automatically detect and configure a device when it is connected to the computer, Multiple devices can be attached to USB port through daisy chain. It means that the first device is attached to the USB port of the computer, second USB device connects to the first USB device, the third USB device connects to the second USB device and so on. Analternate to daisy chain is USB hub. USB hub plugs into the USB port on the system unit. It contains multiple USB ports used to connect many USB devices. Some USB hubs are Wireless. The receiver is connected to a USB port on computer and USB hub communicates Wirelessly with the receiver.— 1 IT Series > The Concepts of Information Technology Figure 325: USB Hub Several USB versions have been released. USB 1.0 and 1.1 were released between 1996 and 1998 with a speed range from 1.5 Mbps up to 12 Mbps. USB 2.0 was released in 2000 with a maximum speed of 480 Mbps. The current USB 3.0 standard provides transfer speeds of 48 Gbps and charges devices faster than previous USB ports. USB 3.0 is backward compatible. It means that it supports the older devices as well 4. Thunderbolt Port ‘Thunderbolt is an interconnect technology developed by Intel. Thunderbolt port is the fastest type of port used to connect devices to a computer. It supports a transfer speed of up to 10Gbps. It is very useful for laptop and ultrabooks due to slim design. It can connect up to six different peripheral devices. It can also be used to connect USB and FireWire peripherals using proper adapter. Apple was the first company that used this port on its computer. The hard drive manufacturers like Western Digital and audio/video processing companies like Avid are also using Thunderbolt products. Thunderbolt 2 is an update to the original thunderbolt technology. It has max throughput of 20 Gbps 5. HDMI Port HDMI stands for high-definition multimedia interface. HDMI port is a digital port that can transmit both audio and video signals. It is the standard connection for high- definition TVs, video game consoles and other media devices. All currently available monitors , DVD players, televisions and game consoles have at least one HDMI port. Itis the most common multimedia port. 6. FireWire Port FireWire is also known as IEEE 1394. It was originally released by Apple in 1995. It supports hot-swapping, and can connect up to 63 devices per port. It can be used to transfer data between two or more digital devices such as camcorders and digital cameras etc. Firewire can also provide power to some devices. The original FireWire 400 has a data transfer rate of 400 Mbps. The current standard FireWire 800 provides a speed of 800 Mbps. A FireWire hub is a device that plugs into a FireWire port on the system unit. It contains multiple FireWire ports to plug the cables from FireWire devices. It can be used to attach multiple devices to a single FireWire port. Figure 3.26: FireWire Port and Connector3> Unit Components 7. eSATA Port «SATA stands for external Serial Advanced Technology Attachment. An eSATA port is used to connect an external SATA hard disk to a computer. SATA hard disks are popular because of their fast data transmission speeds. «SATA connections provide up to six times faster data transmission speeds than external hard disks attached to USB or FireWire port 8. Ethernet Port The Ethernet port is used to connect a computer to local network or cable modem. Ethernet originally offered a transfer rate of 10 Mbps. Fast Ethemet (called 100Base-T) provides a transfer rate of 100 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet provides higher speed of transmission with transfer rates of 1 Gbps. Audio Port Audio port is used to connect headphones, microphones and speakers to the computer. 3.7.2 Other Ports Some other ports are as follows: 1. MIDI Port MIDI stands for musical instrument digital interface. MIDI. Paez Port connects system unit to a musical instrument like electronic Piano keyboard. A system unit with MIDI port can record sounds created by a synthesizer and then process these sounds. Synthesizer is | ~ti Peripheral or chip that creates sound from digital instructions. Data is transferred between the computer and the MIDI device at a rate of 31.5 Kbps. 2. SCSI Port SCSI stands for small computer system interface. It is a special high-speed parallel ort to attach SCSI peripheral devices like disk drives and printers. It can connect up to 15 devices using daisy chain. 3. IrDA Port IrDA stands for Infrared Data Association. Itis also called Fast Infrared (FIR). IrDA is used to transmit data between two devices by using infrared light waves. IrDA ports have a maximum transfer rate of 4 Mbps and require that a line of sight be maintained between the ‘wo ports. Many printers, digital camera, laptops and PDAs include IrDA ports. Figure 3.27: IrDA Portrr 6 IT Series => The Cone: of Information T: IrDA port can be used to send information from a notebook computer 19 & Wireless printer. PDAs also have IrDA ports for sending information to a printer, a computer, or evother PDA. IrDA works the same way as TV remote control. Tt is useful for very short distance that is free of obstacles. 4, Bluetooth Port Bluetooth port is an alternative of IrDA port. It uses radio waves to transmit data between two devices. It covers a distance of up to 33 feet. Bluetooth-enabled devices can communicate with one another without aligned to one another, Bluetooth port can be used to connect a cell phone to a computer wirelessly. Many laptops and PDAs include Bluetooth chip to transfer data wirelessly to any other device with a Bluetooth chip. The maximum transfer rate of original Bluetooth 1.0 is 1 Mbps. The standard Bluetooth 2.0 has a transfer rate of 3 Mbps. 7Chapter 3 = System Unit Components 3.11 Factors Affecting, Processing Speed ‘The important factors that affect that processing speed of a computer are as follows: 1. Registers Register is a small, high-speed memory inside a CPU. CPU contains a number of ters, Registers store data and instructions while the CPU processes them, The size of the ters determines the amount of data with which the computer can work at one ti:ne. It is also called word size. ‘The size of registers is in bytes. A register can be of one, two, four or eight bytes. Computers with 32-bit registers means the CPU can process four bytes of data at one time. A bigger size of register increases the performance of the computer, [Link] ‘The amount of RAM directly affects the processing speed of the computer, Bigger amount of RAM means that more program instructions and data can be stored in memory- If a computer does not have enough memory to run a program, it must move data between RAM and the hard disk frequently. This process is called swapping that can greatly slow a computer's performance. 3, System Clock System clock is an electronic component. It generates electric signals at a fast speed. It controls all functions of the computer using clock ticks. These ticks of system clock are known as clock cycle and set the speed of CPU. The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate. The power of a CPU is determined by the speed at which it processes data. System clock is one of the major factors that affect a computer speed. A CPU that has a higher clock speed can process more instructions per second than a CPU with a lower clock speed. For example, Core i7 processor running at 3.2 GHz will be faster than Core i7 processor running tt 2.65 GH? if all other components remain the same. Today's fastest CPUs have clock speed of more than 3 GHz. 4. Buses . ‘A bus is a path between the components of a computer. Data and instructions travel along these [Link] bus width determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and other devices. Bus width also affects the performance of the computer. A higher bus ‘width means that the bus can carry more data. It increases the performance of the computer. 5. Cache Memory A cache (pronounced "cash’) is high-speed memory that holds the most recent dats and instructions that have been loaded by the CPU It is designed to speed up the transfer of data and instructions Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU and RAMItis faster than RAM. ‘The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the first time, A copy of that data or Instructions is stored in the cache, The next time the CPU needs that data oF insiructiona, tt first looks tn eache. If the required data is found there, ‘tis retrieved from eache memory instead of main memory. It speeds up the working of CPU. The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact on the computer's speed.24 TT Series => The Concepts of Information Technolog 6.1 Software A set of instructions given to the computer to solve a problem is called software. Software is also called program. Different types of software are. used to solve different problems. A computer works according to the instructions written in the software, 9 computer cannot perform any task without software. 6.1.1 Types of Software The main types of software are as follows: * System Software © Application Software 1. System Software System software is set of programs to control and manage the actual operations of a computer hardware. It controls the usage and allocation of different hardware components. It enables application programs to execute properly. It controls the basic operations as follows: + Saving data on disk * Making computer to work for us +. Printing a document ete. Types of System Software yak: ‘Two types of system software are operating system and utility programs. 1. Operating System An operating system is a set of programs that manages all computer components and operations. A. computer cannot do anything without an operating system. Operating system amust be installed on every computer. The operating system acts as an interface between the computer user and the hardware. The users interact with the computer through operating system. Microsoft Windows and Linux are examples of operating system. 2. Utility Programs A utility program is a type of system software that is used for effective management of computer system. The user can use utility program to perform maintenance tasks related to different devices and programs. The utility programs keep the computer system runhing smoothly. Antivirus and file compression software are examples of utility programs. 2. Application Software Application software is used to perform various applications on the computer. ee a computer user to perform specific tasks. People use application software according to needs. It is also known as application package. The application software uses the operating system in order to function. It runs on the top of the operating system. Examples “ Some important examples of application software are as follows: Word processor such as MS Word. Spreadsheet such as MS Excel and Lotus 123 etc. Database software such as MS Access and Oracle ete. Graphics software such as CorelDraw and Adobe Photoshop etc. A6 = Operatii & 6.1.2 Difference between System & Application Software The difference between system software and application software is as follows: [System Software Application Software J 7,_Itis general-purpose software. 1. Itis specific purpose software. 2. Itis used to manage computer resources._| 2. It is used to solve particular prob a application software. much more than m software. a to work. - acomputer to work. 6.2 Operating System An operating system is a set of programs that manages all computer components and operations. When computer is turned on, the operating system runs and checks that all parts of the computer are functioning properly. It manages all operations on the computer after loading in memory. A computer cannot do anything without operating system. Operating system must be installed on every computer. The operating system: acts as an interface bétween the computer user and the hardware. The users interact with the computer through operating system. = Cu Figure 6.1: User interaction with computer via operating system Some important operating systems are as follows: * Windows © Linux . . UNIX Mac OS: 6.21 Objectives of Operating System Different objectives of operating system are as follows: 1. Convenience ‘The primary objective of an operating system is to provide convenience for the user. It allows the user to perform different tasks easily. It helps the end user to run software for solving the problems conveniently, mers to develop software ina Problems conveniently. It also allows the program236. 17 Series => The Concepts of Information Technology 2. Efficiency An operating system manages computer resources in such way that improves the efficiency of the system. Different resources of the computer include processing power, storage and communication. . 3. Ability to Evolve ‘The hardware and software technologies are changing rapidly. The operating system must be able to evolve according to these changes. It should allow the user to use the latest technologies in software and hardware without any problem. 6.2.2 Functions of Operating System Operating system perfor he ollowing functions: ya x: 1. Booting Booting is a process of starting or restarting the computer. Operating system starts the computer to work. It checks the computer and makes it ready to work. ‘There are two types of booting: [Link] Boot When the computer is turned on after it has been powered off completely, it is called cold boot. [Link] Boot — When the computer is restarted, it is called warm boot. When booting process takes place, the kernel and important instructions of operating system are copied from hard disk to main memory (RAM). Kernel is the most important part of operating system that manages memory and devices, maintains computer clock, starts applications and assigns computer resources like devices, programs, data and information etc. Kernel remains in memory permanently while the computer is turned on. Six major events happen during the boot process: 1. The computer receives and distributes electrical power to its circuits so the system components can run, 2. BIOS program starts when the ROM chip receives power. The BIOS contains instructions for starting the system before the operating system is loaded 3. The BIOS performs the power-on-self-test (POST) to check critical system components and make sure they are running properly, The computer may beep and flash messages ‘on the screen during this step. 4. If the system components are running properly, the BIOS looks for devices connected to the computer and checks their settings. If the BIOS finds an error, the computer may beep again and display error messages describing the problem. 5. If steps 3-4 are successful and error free, the BIOS searches for the system files required to run the operating system and loads them into RAM. Next, BIOS loads the kernel, or core of the operating system into RAM. The operating system takes over control of computet functions once the kernel is loaded, 6. The operating system completes setup tasks such as requesting username and password, starts and runs utility software and other programs in the background. It then displays the main user interface screen. 2. Memory Management Memory management is a process of optimizing the use of main memory. RAM is used to store data and instructions temporarily during execution. Operating system allocates memory area to different programs. The allocated memory area is deallocated when theChapter 6 => Operating Systems & Utility Programs 237 program finishes. Some operating systems allocate a part of storage medium like hard disk as additional RAM. A part of a running program can be in RAM and the remaining part may be ‘on hard disk. This is known as virtual memory. The area of hard disk used for virtual memory is called swap file. It is used to exchange data, information and instructions between memory and hard disk. The amount of data and program instructions that can swap at a given time is called page. The process of swapping items between memory and hard disk is called paging. A situation in which most of the time of operating system is wasted in paging instead of executing the program is called thrashing. 256/633 Figure 6.2: Managing Virtual Memory 3. Job Scheduling Any operation managed by processor is called job. There may be many jobs to execute such as executing instructions, getting input or displaying result to the user etc. Operating system determines the order in which these jobs are processed. Many scheduling mechanisms are used by the operating system to execute these jobs. Some times, jobs are executed in first-come-first-serve basis. But in some situations, the new coming job is given more priority. Sometimes, a device is already busy in executing some instructions. In this case, the new job is stored in a memory area called buffer, For example, if there are three printing jobs, the printer can print only one job at a time. The operating system sends the next two jobs in buffer. It is known as spooling. The jobs in the buffer is said to be in quewe, When printer completes the first job, it gets the next job from buffer and executes it. This is done by a program called print spooler, 4. Device Controlling ting system controls all devices attached to the computer. The hardware devices are controlled with the help of small softwares called device drivers. A device driver is a Program that tells the operating system how to communicate with a device. Each device has its own set of commands and requires specific driver. The operating system loads the drivers of all devices when the computer boots. The devices cannot function Properly without device drivers. In Windows, the extension of driver files is ".drv".IT Series => The Concepts of Information Technol of device drivers. When “The latest Windows operating systems contain a large number anew hardware device is attached to the computer, it automatically detects fe series aed acy vs aiiver if itis available. This is known as Plug and Play. If the drive new install or veilable, the operating system guides the user to install it manually from CD or floppy disk ete. 5. Accessing the Web : connect to the Web. It guides the user to set Operating system provides the facility to ter and Internet Service Provider. Some operating systems :m, Web browser is used to view email of web browser and progral on computer. up also provide the facilities Leia .d email program is used to send and retirve websites on the Internet an 6. Monitoring Performance eis Operating system also monitors the performance of the computer. formance monitor is a program that checks and reports information about different system resources and devices. For example, it monitors the processor, disks, memory and network etc, 7. Housekeeping Services Operating system performs different functions related to storage and file management by using a special program known as file manager. These functions include the following: + Formatting and copying disks * Displaying a list of files on a storage medium © Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium 257/633 Organizing, copying, renaming, deleting. moving and sorting files’ Creating shortcuts 8. Controlling Network Some operating systems are network operating systems called network OS or NOS. These are the operating systems that support network. A network operating system organizes how multiple users access and share resources on the network. These resources include programs, files and hardware devices such as drives and printers etc. 9. Administrating Security Operating system manages the security of computer syste: prograns stored on i Secriy normally maintained by cotrg tectD and paarrords. Bac user set meet ID see peared te lg on. Tha uaer ID and paseword Wentie euch The network administrator can also define different levels of access lifferent users. For example, some users may have lal acces aN seer cree users may be restricted to only specific resources. ie 10. Providing User Interface The operating system acts as an interface between hardware, The users interact with i epaeeee ine see a