CHEMISTRY

Chapter 9
Gases
CHAPTER 9: GASES
9.1 Gas Pressure
9.2 The Ideal Gas Law
9.3 Stoichiometry and Gases
9.4 Effusion and Diffusion
9.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
9.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior

2
9.1 GAS PRESSURE
Describing Gases
• All gases have the SAME dependence on four properties.
Pressure (atm) Volume (L) Amount Temperature (K)
(moles)

3
9.1 GAS PRESSURE
Pressure
• Pressure is the force exerted on an area of some surface.

𝐹𝐹 SI Unit: Pa
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴 Force 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
P = pressure
F = force (N)
Chemistry Units: atm or bar
Area
A = area (m2) 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
1 atm = 101325 Pa

• Gas pressure is caused by the force exerted by

gas molecules colliding with the interior walls of a
container. Although the force of each collision is
very small, any surface of appreciable area
experiences a large number of collisions in a
short time, which can result in high pressure.
4
GAS PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the
column of air molecules in the atmosphere above an
object.
• At sea level, this pressure is roughly the same as that exerted
by a full-grown African elephant standing on a doormat.
• Seems like a lot, but we have evolved to be used to it.

P = F/A
• Pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely
proportional to area.
• Increase F, increase P
• Decrease F, decrease P
• Increase A, decrease P
• Decrease A, increase P
FIGURE 9.3

Although (a) an elephant’s weight is large, creating a very large force on the ground,
(b) the figure skater exerts a much higher pressure on the ice due to the small
surface area of her skates. (credit a: modification of work by Guido da Rozze; credit
b: modification of work by Ryosuke Yagi)
UNITS OF PRESSURE

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa).

• Not used often because 1 Pa is a small pressure

A mercury barometer is a device used to measure the

atmospheric pressure.

Due to the way gas pressure is measured, millimeters of

mercury (mm Hg) is a commonly used unit of pressure.

Probably the most common unit of gas pressure is the

atmosphere (atm).
• 1 atm is the “normal atmospheric pressure”
• 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr
UNITS OF PRESSURE

We can convert between any units of P!

Pressure conversions:
• 1.013 bar = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 101,325 Pa =
101.325 kPa
• = 14.7 psi = 101.3 kPa
MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The barometer
measures pressure in
terms of the height of a
column of liquid mercury.

The atmosphere exerts

a force on the liquid
mercury causing it to
rise.

Commonly, the pressure

of the atmosphere at sea
level pushes the column In a barometer, the height, h, of the column of
of mercury ~760 mm liquid is used as a measurement of the air
high. pressure. Using very dense liquid mercury (left)
permits the construction of reasonably sized
barometers, whereas using water (right) would
require a barometer more than 30 feet tall.
9.1 GAS PRESSURE
Pressure
• One way to measure pressure in the laboratory is by using a
manometer.
• A closed-end manometer can be used to measure gas trapped in a
container. The distance between the mercury level is proportional to the
pressure of the gas in the flask.
• An open-end manometer is similar but the distance between the
mercury levels corresponds to the difference between the pressure in
the flask and the pressure of the atmosphere.

10
EXAMPLE 9.3.1

What is the pressure of the gas in mm Hg?

EXAMPLE 9.4

What is the pressure of the gas in mm Hg? The atmospheric pressure is

equal to 760.0 mm Hg
EXAMPLE 9.4

What is the pressure of the gas in mm Hg? The atmospheric pressure is

equal to 760.0 mm Hg
9.2 RELATING PRESSURE, VOLUME, AMOUNT, TEMPERATURE:
THE IDEAL GAS LAW

• Scientists determined the mathematical relationship

between variables that hold for an ideal gas –
hypothetical construct that real gases approximate
under certain conditions.

• Ideal gas – 1. Volume of the gas particles negligible in

relation to the container 2. Gas particles do not interact
with one another.

• These individual laws were combined into a single

equation – the ideal gas law – that relates the
pressure, volume, temperature and amount (moles) of a
gas.

• Accurate for low pressures and moderate temperatures.

 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Pressure and Temperature: Amonton’s Law
• If a sealed flask is filled with gas, the atoms or molecules in that
gas exert pressure by colliding with the sides of the flask.
• If the temperature of the container is raised, the gas inside gets
hotter and more collisions occur causing the pressure to
increase.

Note that the volume and the amount of gas are constant through the experiment. 15
 𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇

Pressure and Temperature: Amonton’s Law

• Pressure increases with an increase in temperature for any
sample of gas where volume and amount are held constant.

From the data, it is clear that pressure is directly proportional

to temperature when volume is held constant.
𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇
k is a constant 16
 𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇

Pressure and Temperature: Amonton’s Law

• The direct relationship between pressure and temperature (at
constant amount and constant volume) for a gas holds at
different conditions as shown:

Condition 1 Condition 2
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇2
𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2
= 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2

𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2

= 𝑘𝑘 = =
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 17
 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law
• Study the data and graph.
• Describe the relationship between temperature and volume.

18
 𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇

Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law

• For gases, there is also direct relationship between volume and
temperature. When the temperature is raised, volume increases.

Condition 1 Condition 2
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇1 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇2
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2
= 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2

= 𝑘𝑘 = =
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 19
 𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝑇𝑇
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇

Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law

The temperature-volume relationship for Plots of volume versus temperature for

equal sized samples of H2 at three different amounts of selected gases at 1
different pressures were measured. The atm. All the plots extrapolate to a value
broken line represent and extrapolation of V = 0 at absolute zero, regardless of
to V=0. All the lines extrapolate to the the identity or the amount of the gas.
same temperature, absolute zero
at V=0.
20
 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Volume and Pressure: Boyle’s Law
• An experiment concerning the
pressure-volume behavior of a gas
sample was conducted at constant
temperature.
• An airtight syringe contained a specific
amount of air at constant temperature.
• As the plunger was slowly pushed
down, the gas in the syringe was
compressed into a smaller volume and
its pressure increased.
• As the plunger was pulled out, the
volume increased and the pressure
decreased proportionally.
• Study the data/graphs and explain how
P and V are related at constant
temperature. 21
 𝑉𝑉 ∝ 1/𝑃𝑃
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑃𝑃
Volume and Temperature: Boyle’s Law 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘
• For gases, there is an inverse relationship between
pressure and volume (at constant temperature).

Condition 1 Condition 2
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 =
𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2
𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑘𝑘

𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2

22
 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Moles and Volume: Avogadro’s Law
• Avogadro developed a theory to account for the behavior of
gases when they are measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
• For a confined gas, the volume (V) and number of moles (n) are
directly proportional if P and T remain constant.

23
 𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝑎𝑎
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎

Mass and Volume: Avogadro’s Law

• For a sample of gas, the volume is directly proportional to the
amount of gas, in moles.

Condition 1 Condition 2
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎1 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎2
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2
= 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2

The balloon contains The balloon contains

4 g of He. 17 g of NH3.

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2

= 𝑘𝑘 = =
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 24
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
The Ideal Gas Law
• Four separate laws concerning gases have been presented.

𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2
Amonton’s Law 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 =
n, V constant 𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2
Charles’s Law 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 =
n, P constant 𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2

𝑘𝑘
Boyle’s Law 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2
𝑃𝑃
n, T constant

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2
Avogadro’s Law 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 =
T, P constant 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2
25
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Combining the four separate laws yields the ideal gas law. The four
constants (k’s) were combined into a new constant, R, called the ideal
gas constant.

Amonton’s Law 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇

P = pressure (atm)
V = volume (L)
Charles’s Law n = moles (mol)
T = temperature (K)
𝐿𝐿 � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 = 0.08206
Boyle’s Law 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 𝐾𝐾

Standard temperature and pressure

(STP) for gas experiments:
T = 273.15 K (0 °C)
Avogadro’s Law P = 1 atm
26
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Example – Standard Temperature and Pressure
If the three balloons below are at STP, what is the volume of gas in
each balloon? Each balloon contains exactly 1 mole of gas particles.

He: 4 g NH3: 17 g O2: 32 g

27
STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

The volume of a given quantity of gas and the number of

moles in a given volume of gas vary with changes in pressure
and temperature. It is important to define standard conditions.

Standard temperature and pressure (STP)

• 0 oC = 273 K
• 1 atm

At STP, the volume of one mole of any gas can be calculated.

One mole of an ideal gas at STP has a volume of 22.4 L.

9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Example 9.9 – Using the Ideal Gas Law
Methane, CH4, is being considered for use as an alternative automotive
fuel to replace gasoline. One gallon of gasoline could be replaced by
655 g of CH4. What is the volume of this amount of methane at 25 °C
and 745 mmHg?

29
9.2 THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Example 9.10 – The Combined Gas Law
When filled with air, a typical scuba tank with a volume of 13.2 L has a
pressure of 153 atm. If the water temperature is 27.0 °C, how many
liters of air will such a tank provide to a diver’s lungs (at a body
temperature of 37.0 °C at a depth of approximately 70 feet in the ocean
where the pressure is 3.13 atm? Hint: Set up two conditions.

Condition 1 Condition 2
𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇

What is the equation for the combined gas law?

30
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Density and Molar Mass
• What is the definition of density? What are the units?
• The ideal gas law is:
𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇
𝑔𝑔
• To determine the density of a gas, the units needed are:
𝐿𝐿
• The number of grams is related to n.
• The number of liters is the volume, V.
• Use what you know (in the proper units), the ideal gas law, and
dimensional analysis to solve the problem.

If you remember PV=nRT and the basic units for density,

there is no need to memorize a complicated equation.

An example is given on the next slide.

31
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example: Density and Molar Mass
Calculate the density of Freon-12, CF2Cl2 at 37.0 °C and 0.954 atm.
#𝑔𝑔
Know: 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇 Want: 𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 =
MM Freon-12 = 120.91 g/mol #𝐿𝐿

𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇

Know all these,

solve for n/V.
32
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example: Molar Mass from Gas Data
A gas has a density of 0.0847 g/L at 17.0 °C and a pressure of 760 torr.
What is the molar mass of the gas? Try to identify the gas.
#𝑔𝑔
Know: 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇 Want: 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
#𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

33
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example: Empirical/Molecular Formula and Gas Data
Cyclopropane, a gas once used with oxygen as a general anesthetic, is
composed of 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Find the
empirical formula. If 1.56 g of cyclopropane occupies a volume of 1.00 L at
0.984 atm and 50.0 °C, what is the molecular formula for cyclopropane?

Know: Want:
It’s a gas, so it’s a good bet that PV = nRT will be involved!

34
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
• The total pressure for a mixture of gases is equal to sum of the
partial pressures of those gases.
• If the gases do not interact (are ideal gases), each gas in the
mixture obeys its own PV=nRT.

PbVb=nbRTb PpVp=npRTp PyVy=nyRTy Ptotal = Pb + Pp + Py

for blue for purple for yellow 35
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
• The pressure of each individual gas (Pb, Pp, Py) is the partial
pressure of that gas.
• Consider the ideal gas law. What values remain constant?

PbVb=nbRTb PpVp=npRTp PyVy=nyRTy Ptotal = Pb + Pp + Py

for blue for purple for yellow 36
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
• The volume and temperature for the gases are constant
because they are mixed together in the same container.
• The partial pressure of each gas depends upon the number of
moles (nb, np, ny) of that gas.
• The partial pressure of each gas is related to the total pressure by the
mole fraction of that gas.
ntotal = total moles of gas
nb = total moles of blue
Xb = mole fraction of blue
𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏
𝑋𝑋𝑏𝑏 =
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = 𝑋𝑋𝑏𝑏 × 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 ∝ 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 ∝ 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑃𝑃𝑦𝑦 ∝ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 + 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 + 𝑃𝑃𝑦𝑦
37
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example 9.14 – The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases
A 10.0-L vessel contains 2.50 × 10−3 mol of H2, 1.00 × 10−3 mol of
He, and 3.00 × 10−4 mol of Ne at 35 °C.
a. What are the partial pressures of each gas?
b. What is the total pressure (atm) in the container?

38
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example 9.15 – The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases
A gas mixture used for anesthesia contains 2.83 mol oxygen, O2,
and 8.41 mol nitrous oxide, N2O. The total pressure of the mixture
is 192 kPa.
a. What are the mole fractions of O2 and N2O?
b. What are the partial pressures of O2 and N2O?

39
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Collecting Gas Over Water
• A simple way to collect a gas is to capture it in a bottle that has been
filled with water and then inverted into a large container of water.
• The pressure of the gas inside the bottle can be made equal to the air
pressure outside by raising or lowering the bottle until the water level is
the same both inside and outside the bottle
• The pressure of the gas collected is then equal to the atmospheric
pressure (measured by using a barometer).

The collection flask has the gas produced

by the reaction in it. It also has a small
amount of water vapor in it.

Ptotal = Psample + Pwater

You can look up the vapor pressure of

water at various temperatures in the CRC,
other reference books, in the textbook.
40
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example 9.16 – Pressure of a Gas Collected Over Water
If 0.200 L of argon is collected over water at a temperature of 26 °C
and a pressure of 750 torr what is the partial pressure of argon in
torr and in atm? The vapor pressure of water at 26 °C is 25.2 torr.

41
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example – Decomposition of KClO3

42
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Chemical Stoichiometry of Gases
• In the introduction to stoichiometry, reactions were balanced,
grams were converted to moles and various calculations were
done.
• Stoichiometry for gases works exactly the same way, except
here, the number of moles might be obtained by using
calculations related to gases, usually PV=nRT.

1. Write and balance the reaction.

2. List what you know and what you want.
3. Get all units into standard gas units (L, atm, mol, K)
and look up constants or molar masses as needed.
4. Approach the calculation as you would any other
stoichiometry problem.

43
 9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
• The volume ratio of any two gases in a reaction at constant
temperature and pressure is the same as the stoichiometric
ratio (mole ratio) in the balanced chemical equation.
• Recall that V= kn (constant T, P). The volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the moles of a gas.

One volume of N2 combines with three volumes of H2 to form two volumes of NH3.
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example 9.17 – Reaction of Gases
Propane, C3H8(g), is used in gas grills to provide the heat for cooking. What
volume of O2(g) measured at 25 °C and 760 torr is required to react with
2.7 L of propane measured under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure? Assume that the propane undergoes complete combustion.

45
9.3 STOICHIOMETRY AND GASES
Example 9.18 – Volumes of Reacting Gases
Ammonia is an important fertilizer and industrial chemical. Suppose that a
volume of 683 billion cubic feet of gaseous ammonia, measured at 25 °C
and 1 atm, was manufactured. What volume of H2(g), measured under the
same conditions, was required to prepare this amount of ammonia by
reaction with N2?

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

46
9.4 EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION OF GASES
Diffusion
• The process by which molecules disperse in space in response to
difference in concentration is called diffusion.
• Diffusion ultimately results in equal concentrations of gas throughout
the system.

• The rate of diffusion is the amount of gas passing through some area
per unit time.

47
9.4 EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION OF GASES
Effusion
• By contrast, effusion is the escape of gas molecules through a tiny hole
into a vacuum.

• Rates of effusion for different gases can be compared by using

Graham’s Law: The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of the mass of its particles.

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵

=
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
48
9.4 EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION OF GASES
Example: Effusion of an Unknown vs. Helium
An unknown gas effuses through an opening at a rate that is one third that
of helium gas. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas?
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵
=
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴

Make gas B the unknown.

Make gas A He
MM, He = 4.003 g/mol
Rate He = x
Rate unknown = x/3

Answer: 36.03 g/mol

49
9.4 EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION OF GASES
Example: Ar vs. He Rate of Effusion
Argon gas is ten times denser than helium gas at the same temperature
and pressure. Which gas will effuse faster? How much faster?
Ar (g) and He (g) are both noble gases. 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵
They are monatomic and inert. =
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
MM, Ar (g) = 39.95 g/mol
MM, He (g) = 4.003 g/mol

Answer: He (g) is 3.159 times faster than Ar (g)

50
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Explaining Gas Laws
• The gas laws presented thus far have been derived from experimental
observations.
• As a mathematical model, PV=nRT generally describes the behavior of
most gases at or above room temperature and 1-2 atm.
• Why do gases behave this way?
• Observations work on a macroscopic level.
• On a microscopic level, kinetic molecular theory is useful.

𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉

𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇
51
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Kinetic Molecular Theory
1. Particles are in continuous motion.
2. The volume of each particle is negligible.
3. Pressure results from collisions between particles and the
container walls.
4. Particles do not exert forces on each other; collision are elastic.
5. The average kinetic energy is proportional to temperature (K).

52
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains the Behavior of Gases

Amonton’s Law Boyle’s Law Avogadro’s Law

P and T P and V n and V
V constant  T constant P constant
𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1
= 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑇1 𝑎𝑎1

T then P P then V n then V

increased reduced frequency constant number
frequency and force of collisions of collisions
of collisions 53
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Molecular Velocities and Kinetic Energy
• In a gas sample, particles have various speeds.
• Because there are an enormous number of particles in a gas
sample, the molecular speed distribution and the average
speed remain constant.
• The molecular speed distribution is known as a Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution.

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
The relative number of molecules in a
gas sample that possess a given speed
(the speed distribution) is shown.

54
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Molecular Velocities and Kinetic Energy
• If the temperature of a gas sample increases, KE increases.
• more particles at higher speed
• distribution shifts toward higher speeds overall (to the right)
• If the temperature decreases, the average KE decreases.
• more particles at lower sped
• distribution shifts to the lower speeds overall (to the left)

The molecular speed distribution

for nitrogen gas shifts to the right
and flattens at temperature and
therefore velocity increases.

55
9.5 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
Molecular Velocities and Kinetic Energy
• At a given temperature, all gases have the same average
kinetic energy.
• Gases composed of lighter particles have a speed distribution
that peaks at higher velocities.

Molecular velocity is directly related to

molecular mass. At a given temperature,
lighter particles move faster on average
than heavier particles.

56
9.6 NON-IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOR
Ideal Gases: Assumptions
• Gas atoms/molecules have no volume; the particles are point
masses.
• The atoms/molecules do not experience attractions or
repulsions and only undergo elastic collisions.

Real Gases
• Deviate from ideal behavior at low temperature (particles DO
interact) and high pressure (volume of gas is NOT negligible).

57
9.6 NON-IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOR
Real Gases
• Consider nitrogen gas:
• What happens at extremely high pressure? Low temperature?
• Gases deviate most from ideal behavior at high pressure and
low temperature.
• The behavior of real gases can be approximated by the van der
Waals equation. The equation corrects:
• the pressure term to account for attraction between particles.
• the volume term to account for the real volume of gas particles
(they are not simply point masses).

58
 EXTRA PROBLEMS
Gases in Biology
One molecule of the protein hemoglobin will bind four molecules of
oxygen gas. If 1.00 g of hemoglobin requires 1.53 mL of oxygen at
body temperature (37.0 °C) and 743 mmHg, what is the molar
mass of hemoglobin?
O2
O2

O2 O2

Hemoglobin (PDB: 1A3N)

Answer: 68,100 g/mol 59

EXTRA PROBLEMS Video: How Bombardier Beetles Bomb (MIT)
[Link]
Gases in Biology
A bombardier beetle uses H2O2 decomposition as a mechanism to
activate enzymes that oxidize organic molecules. The process generates
so much heat that the organic chemicals boils. The pressure of the
oxygen gas causes the boiling, noxious chemicals to be expelled with
explosive force over a large range. This can be fatal to attacking insects.

A simpler reaction can be done in a flask in the laboratory. If 0.25 g of

H2O2 decomposes in a sealed 1.50 L flask at 19.1 °C. What are the
pressures of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas produced?

Answer: P of O2 = P of H2 = 0.12 atm 60

EXTRA PROBLEMS
After mixing, calculate the total pressure in the system, the mole fraction of He
and Ar, and the partial pressure of He and Ar.
Assume the temperature remains constant.
END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS – CHAPTER 9

Gas Laws: #5, 19, 27, 29, 45

Ideal Gas Law: #31, 33, 35a, 43, 49

Partial Pressure: #57, 59, 61, 63

For detailed solutions to these problems, go to the OpenStax

Chemistry website and download the Student Solution Guide.
VIDEOS – CHAPTER 9
Boyle’s Law
[Link]

Charles’ Law
[Link]

Ideal Gas Law

[Link]

Ideal Gas Law w/ Combined Gas Law

[Link]

Ideal Gas Law & Density

[Link]

Gas Stoichiometry
[Link]

Partial Pressure
[Link]
[Link]

Partial Pressure w/ Mole Fractions

[Link]
[Link]

*All videos were created by MC Chemistry faculty unless otherwise indicated.

SIMULATIONS – CHAPTER 9
Gas Properties (Simple gas laws, Ideal gas law)
[Link]