UNIT 2

Internet

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using a

standard set of rules called protocols (TCP/IP).

It is the infrastructure that allows services like the World Wide Web (WWW), email, file
transfer, and online communication to work.

Key Features of the Internet

1. Global Network of Networks → Millions of computers, servers, and devices connected

worldwide.
2. Protocols → Communication based on TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).
3. Decentralized → No single owner; it’s managed by ISPs (Internet Service Providers),
organizations, and governments collectively.
4. Variety of Services → Not just WWW; also includes:
o Email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3)
o File Transfer (FTP)
o Chat & Messaging (WhatsApp, Telegram, VoIP)
o Streaming (YouTube, Netflix)
o Cloud Computing (Google Drive, AWS)
5. Always On → Works 24/7 across countries, regions, and networks.

Components of the Internet

• End Devices: Computers, smartphones, IoT devices.

• Routers & Switches: Direct traffic between networks.
• Servers: Host applications, websites, and databases.
• ISPs (Internet Service Providers): Provide connectivity (Airtel, Jio, BSNL).
 • Backbone Networks: High-capacity cables (fiber optic, undersea cables) connecting
continents.
• Protocols: TCP/IP suite that ensures data travels reliably across networks.

How the Internet Works

1. When you send a message or request, it is broken into data packets.

2. Each packet travels across multiple routers and networks using IP addresses.
3. Packets are reassembled at the destination to form the original message or file.

Example: Sending an email from India to the USA goes through multiple networks, ISPs, and
undersea cables, but the protocols ensure it reaches the correct mailbox.

Importance

• Acts as the backbone of the digital world.

• Enables digital economy & globalization.

• Promotes education and research via online courses, e-libraries, research sharing.

• Boosts innovation (AI, IoT, Cloud, Blockchain).

• Provides emergency communication systems during disasters.

Benefits

• Global Connectivity → Connects people across the world instantly.

• Access to Information → Huge resource for knowledge, research, and learning.

• Communication → Email, messaging, video calls, social media.

• E-commerce → Online shopping, banking, trading.

• Entertainment → Streaming movies, games, music.

• Work & Collaboration → Remote work, cloud storage, project management tools.

Limitations
 • Digital Divide → Not accessible equally to all regions/populations.

• Cybersecurity Risks → Hacking, phishing, identity theft.

• Privacy Issues → Personal data misuse, surveillance.

• Addiction & Misuse → Social media overuse, misinformation, online fraud.

• Infrastructure Dependency → Needs electricity, servers, networks — prone to failures.

WWW

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents that are
accessed via the Internet.

• Proposed by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 while working at CERN.

• It’s different from the Internet:
o Internet = the global network of computers (the infrastructure).
o WWW = an information-sharing system built on top of the Internet.

WWW = A web of connected documents and services, running on the Internet, accessed via
browsers, and made possible by protocols like HTTP and languages like HTML.

The World Wide Web (WWW) is not a single technology but a collection of interrelated
components that work together to allow users to access, share, and interact with information over
the Internet.

Difference Between Internet & WWW

Feature Internet WWW
A global network of networks A collection of interlinked documents and
Definition
connecting devices worldwide. services that run on the Internet.
Technology Based on TCP/IP. Based on HTTP/HTTPS + HTML.
 Feature Internet WWW
Broad: email, FTP, VoIP, chat, Narrower: only web pages and linked
Scope
streaming, cloud, WWW. resources.
Existence Exists independently of WWW. Cannot exist without Internet.
Like the road system connecting Like the cars/trucks (services) that run on
Analogy
cities. the roads.

Components of the WWW

The WWW is made up of several interconnected components:

1. Web Browser
2. Web Server
3. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
4. Protocols
5. Search Engines
6. Databases

1. Web Browser

A web browser is software that allows users to access, retrieve, and view web pages.

Functions:

• Send HTTP/HTTPS requests to servers for web resources.

• Render HTML into readable content for humans.
• Apply CSS to style the content (fonts, colors, layout).
• Execute JavaScript to provide interactivity (forms, animations, shopping carts).
• Manage cookies, cache, and security certificates for smooth browsing.
Examples:

• Google Chrome
• Mozilla Firefox
• Microsoft Edge
• Safari

Analogy: A browser is like a TV — it lets you see and interact with the “channels” (websites)
that servers broadcast.

2. Web Server

A web server is a computer system (software + hardware) that stores, processes, and delivers
web content when requested by browsers.

Functions:

• Hosts websites and applications.

• Processes incoming HTTP/HTTPS requests.
• Delivers HTML, CSS, JS, images, or videos as responses.
• May interact with application servers and databases to generate dynamic content (like
personalized recommendations on Amazon).

Examples:

• Apache HTTP Server – most widely used open-source server.

• Nginx – efficient server for handling heavy traffic.
• Microsoft IIS (Internet Information Services) – Microsoft’s web server for Windows.

Analogy: A web server is like a restaurant kitchen — it prepares and serves the “meal”
(webpage) when the customer (browser) places an order.

3. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A URL is the address of a resource on the web.

Structure:

[Link]

• Protocol → https (tells how to communicate)

• Domain name → [Link] (the website/server name)
• Path → /product (specific location on the site)
• Query string → ?id=123 (extra parameters, often used in e-commerce searches or filters)

Analogy: A URL is like the postal address of a house — it tells exactly where to deliver the
information.

5. Search Engines

Search engines are specialized tools that index and organize web content, making it easy for
users to find information.

Functions:

• Use web crawlers (spiders) to scan and index millions of web pages.
• Organize information in large databases.
• Provide ranking algorithms to show the most relevant results.
• Examples: Google, Bing, Yahoo, DuckDuckGo.

Analogy: A search engine is like a library catalog — it doesn’t store the books (websites) itself,
but it helps you find the right book quickly.

6. Databases

Databases store the dynamic content that websites need.

Functions:

• Keep structured information like user data, product catalogs, financial records.
• Provide fast access to dynamic pages (e.g., “Your Shopping Cart” on Amazon).
 • Support queries (SQL/NoSQL) to fetch and update data.

Types:

• Relational Databases (SQL): MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle (structured tables).

• NoSQL Databases: MongoDB, Cassandra (flexible, used in modern apps).

Analogy: A database is like the warehouse behind a shop — the shop (website) fetches
items (data) from the warehouse when customers ask for it.

Detailed Example (Using [Link])

Step 1: User enters the web address

• The user types [Link] into the browser’s address bar.

• This address is a URL (Uniform Resource Locator).
• Components of the URL:
o https → Protocol (secure HTTP)
o [Link] → Domain name (server name)
o / → Root path (homepage by default)

Step 2: Browser resolves the domain name

• The browser needs the IP address of [Link] to contact the server.

• It asks the DNS (Domain Name System) to translate the domain into an IP address.
• Example: [Link] → [Link]
• Now the browser knows where to send the request.

Step 3: Browser sends HTTP Request

• The browser establishes a connection to the Amazon web server using HTTP/HTTPS.
• It sends a GET request (the most common HTTP method) to ask for the homepage.
Sample GET request:

GET / HTTP/1.1

Host: [Link]

User-Agent: Chrome/140.0

Accept: text/html

• GET / → asking for the homepage.

• Host: [Link] → specifies which site (important for servers hosting multiple
websites).
• User-Agent → tells server which browser/OS is requesting.

Step 4: Server processes the request

• The request reaches Amazon’s web server (e.g., Apache/Nginx).

• The server may also interact with application servers and databases to prepare the
homepage content (products, offers, recommendations).
• Once processed, the server sends back a response.

Step 5: Server responds with HTML content

• The server sends an HTTP Response with the requested data.

Sample response:

HTTP/1.1 200 OK

Content-Type: text/html

Content-Length: 34567
 • 200 OK → means request successful.
• Content-Type: text/html → content is HTML code.
• The body of the response contains the HTML code of Amazon’s homepage.

Step 6: Browser renders the HTML

• The browser reads the HTML line by line.

• HTML provides structure: headings, paragraphs, images, links, buttons.
• Example snippet of Amazon homepage HTML:

<h1>Welcome to Amazon</h1>

<p>Great Indian Festival Sale is live!</p>

<img src="[Link]" alt="Festival Sale Banner">

Step 7: Browser requests additional resources

• The HTML document often refers to external files:

o CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) → styling (fonts, colors, layout).
o JavaScript (JS) → interactivity (search bar, add-to-cart, dropdown menus).
o Images, videos, ads.

Example inside HTML:

<link rel="stylesheet" href="[Link]">

<script src="[Link]"></script>

<img src="[Link]">

• For each of these, the browser sends more HTTP requests to the server/CDN (Content
Delivery Network).

Step 8: Browser executes CSS and JS

 • CSS: Styles the content → fonts, colors, alignment.
• JavaScript: Adds dynamic behavior → e.g., when you click “Add to Cart,” it updates
without reloading the whole page.

Step 9: User sees the final web page

• After processing all HTML, CSS, JS, and images, the browser renders the final
homepage visually.
• Now the user sees Amazon’s homepage: banners, search bar, recommended products, etc.

In short:

1. User enters URL → 2. DNS translates → 3. Browser sends HTTP request →

2. Server processes & replies with HTML → 5. Browser renders HTML →
3. Fetches CSS, JS, images → 7. Displays complete page.

Search Engine

Definition

A search engine is a software system that helps users find information on the World Wide Web
(WWW) by searching its database of indexed websites and displaying the most relevant results.

Examples: Google, Bing, Yahoo, DuckDuckGo, Baidu.

How Search Engines Work

Search engines perform three main functions:

1. Crawling
o Automated programs called crawlers/spiders/bots scan web pages.
o They follow links from one page to another to discover new content.
o Example: Googlebot.
 2. Indexing
o The crawled pages are stored in a giant database (index).
o Content is analyzed: keywords, images, headings, metadata, and links.
o Helps the engine know what each page is about.
3. Ranking & Retrieval
o When a user enters a query, the search engine searches its index.
o Uses ranking algorithms (like Google’s PageRank) to display results.
o Results are shown in a SERP (Search Engine Results Page).

Key Features

• Keyword Search → Find documents that match keywords.

• Relevance Ranking → Show most useful results first.
• Multimedia Search → Images, videos, news, maps, shopping.
• Personalization → Results tailored by location, history, or preferences.
• Advertising → Paid search ads (Google Ads).

Benefits

• Saves time by retrieving information instantly.

• Provides access to millions of web pages in seconds.
• Helps businesses gain visibility (Search Engine Optimization – SEO).
• Encourages global knowledge sharing.
• Supports specialized searches (scholarly content via Google Scholar, products via
Amazon).

Limitations

• Bias in Results → Algorithms may prioritize some websites.

• Misinformation → Can show false or harmful content if not filtered.
• Privacy Concerns → Search history is often tracked for ads.
 • SEO Manipulation → Websites may use tricks to appear higher in rankings.
• Over-dependence → Users rely heavily on engines, reducing critical evaluation.

Simple Example: Searching on Google

1. User types “best smartphones under 15000” in Google.

2. Googlebot already crawled and indexed tech blogs, e-commerce sites, and reviews.
3. Google’s algorithm ranks results (e.g., Flipkart, Amazon, GSMArena).
4. User sees a SERP with product listings, ads, and videos.
5. Clicking a result → opens the actual website.

In short: Search Engine = The librarian of the WWW — it doesn’t own the books (websites),
but it tells you where the information is and which book is most relevant.

E-Mail (Electronic Mail)

Definition

• E-mail is the most widely used Internet service that allows people to send and receive
digital messages (text, files, images, audio, video) instantly across the globe.
• Works on a store-and-forward model: the message is stored on a mail server until the
recipient retrieves it.

Basic Components of an E-mail

1. Sender’s Address – The e-mail ID of the person sending the message (e.g.,
rajesh123@[Link]).
2. Recipient’s Address – One or multiple recipients (To, Cc, Bcc).
3. Subject Line – Brief description of the content.
4. Body – Main message (text, formatted content, media).
5. Attachments – Files such as PDFs, images, documents.
 6. Signature – Optional personal/professional details added at the end.

How E-mail Works

1. Composition → User writes an e-mail in an application (e.g., Gmail, Outlook).

2. Submission → The message is sent to a Mail Server via SMTP.
3. Transfer → The sending server finds the recipient’s mail server using DNS (Domain
Name System).
4. Delivery → Recipient’s server stores the mail in an inbox.
5. Retrieval → Recipient uses a client (via POP3/IMAP) to read it.

Protocols Used

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

Used to send e-mails from client to server and between servers.
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3):
Used to download e-mails from server to client (messages usually removed from server
after download).
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
Allows users to view and manage e-mails directly on the server, keeping messages
synchronized across devices.

COMPONENTS:

When sending an e-mail, you can add recipients in three fields: To, Cc, and Bcc.

To

• The primary recipient(s) of the e-mail.

• These are the people the message is directly addressed to.
• Example: Sending an application to your professor.

Cc (Carbon Copy)
 • Used to send a copy of the e-mail to other people, apart from the main recipient.
• All recipients (To + Cc) can see each other’s addresses.
• Purpose: Keeping people informed even if the mail is not directly for them.

Example:

• To: manager@[Link] (main recipient).

• Cc: teamlead@[Link] (for information).
The Team Lead sees the same e-mail but knows it was addressed primarily to the
Manager.

Bcc (Blind Carbon Copy)

• Similar to Cc, but recipients in Bcc are hidden from others.

• People in Bcc receive the e-mail quietly, without others knowing.
• Useful for privacy or sending the same message to multiple people without exposing
their addresses.

Example:

• To: manager@[Link]
• Bcc: hr@[Link]
The Manager doesn’t know that HR also received a copy.

Benefits of E-mail

• Speed → Instant communication worldwide.

• Low Cost → Much cheaper than postal services or phone calls.
• Convenience → Accessible anywhere, anytime with Internet.
• Record Keeping → Messages stored for future reference.
• Attachments → Supports sharing documents, media, and files.
• Multiple Recipients → Send one mail to many people (To, Cc, Bcc).

Limitations of E-mail
 • Spam & Junk Mail → Unwanted promotional or malicious mails.
• Security Issues → Phishing, hacking, malware attachments.
• Information Overload → Inbox can be flooded with mails.
• Internet Dependence → Cannot work offline without syncing.
• Lack of Personal Touch → Less emotional connection compared to phone/video calls.
• Miscommunication Risk → Misinterpreted tone or unclear subject lines.

Example of an E-mailFrom: rajesh123@[Link]

To: admissions@[Link]
Cc: principal@[Link]
Subject: Request for Admission Form

Respected Sir/Madam,

I am writing to request the admission form for the BBA program. Kindly let me know the
process to apply.

Thank you,
Rajesh Shah

In short:

• E-mail = Fast, cost-effective, and reliable communication tool for personal, academic,
and professional use.
• Runs on SMTP, POP3, and IMAP protocols.
• Has transformed how individuals, businesses, and governments communicate globally.

Protocol
 • A protocol is like a set of rules or a language that computers follow to communicate
with each other.
• Just like humans use English or Hindi with grammar rules to talk, computers use
protocols with strict rules to exchange data.
• Without protocols, one computer’s message would sound like “gibberish” to another.

Simple Analogy

Imagine you are playing cricket with friends:

• Everyone agrees that 6 runs means ball goes outside the boundary.
• Everyone agrees that 3 stumps = wicket.
• These rules allow the game to happen smoothly.
In networking, protocols are the rules of the game.

Types of Protocols

1. Communication Protocols

• Telnet → Remote login (obsolete, insecure).

• SSH → Secure remote login.
• HTTP/HTTPS → Web browsing, accessing websites.
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP → Email communication.

2. File/Data Transfer Protocols

• FTP / SFTP → Transfer files between computers.

• EDI Standards (EDIFACT, X12, XML) → Business documents exchange (orders,
invoices).

3. Payment Protocols

• SSL/TLS → Encryption for secure transactions (used in online payments).

 • SET (Secure Electronic Transaction) → Designed for card payments (though rarely
used now).
• UPI Protocols → Real-time interbank payments in India.

Why Protocols Matter in E-Commerce

• They ensure security (your card details aren’t leaked).

• They ensure speed (real-time payments & order confirmations).
• They ensure compatibility (Amazon’s server can talk to your bank’s server using the
same rules).

Protocols = agreed rules that allow computers, banks, and businesses to “speak the same
language” and safely exchange information.

Different Protocols as Communication Styles

Imagine you are running a shop and you interact with people in different ways:

1. Telnet – Talking on an open loudspeaker

• You want to give instructions to your shop assistant.

• You shout loudly in the market (everyone can hear).
• Problem: Your message (including passwords!) is exposed to everyone.
• This is Telnet – remote login but insecure.

2. SSH – Whispering privately in a locked room

• Now you call your assistant inside your office and whisper instructions.
• No one else can hear; it’s safe and private.
• This is SSH – secure remote login with encryption.

3. FTP – Sending a delivery van with goods

 • A customer orders items from your shop.
• You load them onto a van and deliver them.
• This is FTP – transferring files between systems.
• If you put a lockbox in the van (SFTP), it becomes secure.

4. HTTP – Displaying items in your shop window

• You put all your items in the showcase with labels and prices.
• Customers can see and pick what they like.
• This is HTTP – showing web content on browsers.
• If you add a CCTV guard (HTTPS), it becomes secure.

5. SMTP – Sending letters to customers

• You write bills or offers on letters and post them.

• The post office carries them to the customer’s house.
• This is SMTP – sending emails across servers.

6. EDI – Businesses exchanging invoices directly

• Instead of writing invoices by hand, your shop’s billing software directly sends the
invoice to the supplier’s system.
• No paper, no middleman, no mistakes.
• This is EDI – automated business document exchange.

Summary

• Telnet = Loud open talk (insecure login)

• SSH = Private talk (secure login)
• FTP = Sending goods (file transfer)
• HTTP = Shop display (web content)
• SMTP = Sending letters (emails)
• EDI = Automatic invoice exchange (business-to-business communication).
 Hardware and Software Requirements for Using Internet Services

To access Internet services like WWW, e-mail, FTP, video streaming, e-commerce, cloud apps,
a user needs both hardware (physical devices) and software (programs and applications).

Hardware Requirements

(a) End Devices (Client-Side)

• Computer / Laptop → Standard desktops or laptops with network cards.

• Smartphones / Tablets → Mobile devices with Wi-Fi/4G/5G capabilities.
• IoT Devices → Smart TVs, watches, home assistants (Alexa, Google Home).

(b) Connectivity Devices

• Modem → Converts digital data to analog signals (for telephone/DSL lines).

• Router → Directs Internet traffic, enables multiple devices to connect.
• Switch/Hub → Connects multiple devices in LAN before reaching router.
• Wi-Fi Access Point → Provides wireless connectivity.

(c) Transmission Media

• Wired → Fiber optics, Ethernet cables, DSL lines.

• Wireless → Wi-Fi, 4G/5G mobile data, satellite Internet.

(d) Servers (Provider-Side)

• Web Servers → Host websites and applications.

• Mail Servers → Handle e-mail services.
• Database Servers → Store and manage application data.
• DNS Servers → Translate domain names into IP addresses.

Software Requirements

(a) System Software

• Operating System (OS):

o Windows, macOS, Linux for desktops/laptops.
o Android, iOS for mobile devices.
o Provides networking support (TCP/IP stack).

(b) Network Protocols

 • TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) → Fundamental protocol
suite of the Internet.
• HTTP/HTTPS → For browsing web pages.
• SMTP/IMAP/POP3 → For e-mail.
• FTP → For file transfer.
• VoIP Protocols (SIP, RTP) → For voice/video calls.

(c) Application Software

• Web Browsers → Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge (for WWW access).

• E-mail Clients → Outlook, Thunderbird, Gmail app.
• Messaging & Collaboration Apps → WhatsApp, MS Teams, Slack.
• Streaming & Cloud Apps → Netflix, YouTube, Google Drive, Zoom.
• Antivirus & Security Tools → To protect against malware, phishing, and threats.

(d) Utilities

• Firewall software → To filter traffic.

• VPN (Virtual Private Network) → To ensure privacy and secure access.

User Requirements

• Internet Connection → From ISP (Airtel, Jio, BSNL, ACT, etc.).

• Subscription / Data Plan → Depending on usage (home, mobile, business).
• Credentials (Login/Accounts) → E-mail accounts, cloud logins, banking IDs, etc.

Example: Accessing Internet Services

• A student with a laptop (hardware) connected to a Wi-Fi router.

• Laptop runs Windows OS (system software).
• Uses Google Chrome (application software) to open [Link].
• The browser uses HTTP/HTTPS protocol over the TCP/IP network stack to request the
page.
• The request goes via ISP hardware (router, DNS server, Amazon’s web server) and
returns the page to the student’s laptop.

In short:

• Hardware = Devices + Network Equipment + Transmission Media.

• Software = OS + Protocols + Applications + Security Tools.
• Both together enable smooth use of Internet services like web browsing, e-mail, cloud, and
e-commerce.
NOTEs:

Remote Login

• Login means signing into a computer system (like entering username and password).
• Remote means doing it from far away, not sitting physically in front of that computer.

Example:

• You are at home.

• Your college’s server is in the lab.
• Instead of going to campus, you open a laptop and type:
• ssh student@[Link]
• Now you can control the lab computer from home: run programs, manage files, etc.

Analogy:

• Normal login = entering your own room with a key.

• Remote login = giving instructions to someone inside your room via a walkie-talkie or video call,
and they open it for you. You control the room without being there physically.

In protocols:

• Telnet was the first way to do remote login (but insecure, like shouting your password).
• SSH is the secure way (like a private encrypted phone call)

So remote login = controlling another computer from a different place, as if you’re sitting in
front of it.

CLIENT and SERVER

(a) Client

• The requesting device/software.

• Examples: Web browser (Chrome, Firefox), e-mail client (Outlook, Gmail app).
• Characteristics:
o Sends requests to server.
 o Waits for server response.
o Provides user interface (UI).

(b) Server

• A powerful computer or software system that stores data and provides services.
• Examples: Web server (Apache, Nginx), Mail server, Database server.
• Characteristics:
o Listens for client requests.
o Processes and responds.
o Can serve multiple clients simultaneously.

Examples of Client–Server Applications

• Web Browsing → Browser (Client) ↔ Web Server (Google, Amazon).

• E-mail → Outlook/Gmail (Client) ↔ Mail Server (SMTP, IMAP).
• Online Banking → Banking App (Client) ↔ Bank’s Server.
• Streaming → Netflix App (Client) ↔ Netflix Server.