CHAPTER 5

WIRELESS LAN TECHNOLOGIES &

BLUETOOTH
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network:-

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area
network that uses radio communication to provide mobility to the network
users while maintaining the connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN
basically, extends a wired local area network. WLAN's are built by attaching
a device called the access point(AP) to the edge of the wired network. Clients
communicate with the AP using a wireless network adapter which is similar
in function to an ethernet adapter. It is also called a LAWN is a Local area
wireless network.

The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The

coverage of WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park. It is used
in the mobile propagation of wired networks. The standards of WLAN are
HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to the desktop laptop,
mobile application, and all the devices that work on the Internet. WLAN is an
affordable method and can be set up in 24 hours. WLAN gives users the
mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected
to the network. Most latest brands are based on IEE 802.11 standards, which
are the WI-FI brand name.
History
A professor at the University of Hawaii who's name was Norman Abramson,
developed the world's first wireless computer communication network. In
1979, Gfeller and u. Bapst published a paper in the IEE proceedings reporting
an experimental wireless local area network using diffused infrared
communications. The first of the IEEE workshops on Wireless LAN was held
in 1991.

WLAN Architecture
Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as
follows:
1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all
wireless LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service
Set(BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).

Types of WLANs
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are
as follows:
1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected
to a base station and communicate through that; and this can also
enable internet access. A WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a
wireless router (base station) and an endpoint (computer, mobile phone,
etc). An office or home WiFi connection is an example of Infrastructure
mode.
2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base
station, like a computer workstation. An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up
it provides peer-to-peer communication. It requires two or more
endpoints with built-in radio transmission.
Working of WLAN
WLAN transmits data over radio signals and the data is sent in the form of a
packet. Each packet consists of layers, labels, and instructions with
unique MAC addresses assigned to endpoints. This enables routing data
packets to correct locations.
How is a WLAN Created ?
A WLAN is a collection of nodes interconnected with each other for the
purpose of data sharing, transmitting messages over the internet,
connecting for peer-2-peer connection etc. As discussed above in types, it
can be created in following 2 ways :
1. Connecting through one base station and that could be the router that
acts as a doorway to the internet, and every other nodes (devices like
computer, smartphones) can connect to the internet and to each other
through it.
2. Peer-2-Peer connection using the wifi direct technology. This is more
suitable for situations when we require to connect two or more devices
without internet and only for purpose of data exchange, connecting over
a same local network.
Is a WLAN Secure ?
Whether or not WLAN is secure depends on multiple factors of
implementation configured by the network administrator. However, by
default it has multiple security vulnerabilities. So the security team should
consider all the factor and configure accordingly.
Following are 3 ways to ensure best security practices :
1. Encryption: Ensure that the network is using highest level of encryption
2. Authentication: There are multiple authentication mechanism, its good
to use protocols that rely on 802.1x standards like WPA-EAP (Wireless
Protected Acess-Extensible Authentication Protocol) for organization as
this method ONLY gives access when correct username and passwords
are input. And usernames and passwords are not shared and are
individual specific only.
Characteristics of WLAN
1. Seamless operation.
2. Low power for battery use.
3. Simple management, easy to use for everyone.
4. Protection of investment in wired networks.
5. Robust transmission technology.
 Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.
5. Mobility.
6. Robustness.
Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
5. Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our
health.

WLAN APPLICATIONS:-
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) Applications

WLAN technology enables wireless communication between devices within

a limited area, such as homes, offices, campuses, and public spaces. Below
are key WLAN applications categorized by sector:

1. Home & Residential Applications

 Broadband Internet Access – Wi-Fi routers provide wireless connectivity

for smartphones, laptops, and smart devices.
 Smart Home Automation – Connects IoT devices like smart lights (Philips
Hue), security cameras (Ring), and voice assistants (Alexa, Google Home).
 Entertainment & Streaming – Supports 4K/8K video streaming (Netflix,
YouTube), online gaming (PlayStation, Xbox Cloud), and music (Spotify).
 Home Office (Remote Work) – Enables video conferencing (Zoom,
Teams), VPN access, and cloud storage (Google Drive, OneDrive).

2. Enterprise & Business Applications

 Corporate Wireless Networks – Secure Wi-Fi for employees to access

internal servers, emails, and cloud apps (SaaS).
 Guest Wi-Fi Hotspots – Provides limited internet access in hotels, cafes,
airports, and shopping malls.
 VoIP & Unified Communications – Wireless IP phones (Cisco, Avaya) and
collaboration tools (Slack, Microsoft Teams).
 Retail & Hospitality – Supports POS systems, digital menus, and customer
analytics via Wi-Fi tracking.

3. Industrial & IoT (Internet of Things) Applications

 Industry 4.0 (Smart Factories) – Connects robots, sensors, and PLCs for
real-time monitoring and automation.
 Healthcare (Wi-Fi 6/6E) – Wireless patient monitoring, telemedicine, and
connected medical devices.
 Warehouse & Logistics – Asset tracking (RFID + Wi-Fi), automated guided
vehicles (AGVs), and inventory management.
 Smart Agriculture – Wireless soil sensors, drone-based monitoring, and
automated irrigation systems.
 4. Public & Municipal Applications

 Public Wi-Fi Hotspots – Free or paid internet in parks, libraries, and

transport hubs.
 Smart City Infrastructure – Traffic monitoring, surveillance cameras, and
emergency response systems.
 Education (E-Learning) – Wireless campus networks for students (online
classes, digital libraries).

5. Specialized & Emerging WLAN Applications

 Wireless ISPs (WISPs) – Deliver internet in rural areas using long-range

Wi-Fi (e.g., Ubiquiti radios).
 Mesh Networking – Extends coverage in large homes/offices (Google
Nest, Netgear Orbi).
 Military & Defense – Tactical ad-hoc networks for secure battlefield
communication.
 Disaster Recovery – Temporary wireless networks in emergency situations.
 WLAN PROBLEMS:-

Common WLAN (Wireless LAN) Problems & Solutions

Wireless networks provide flexibility and convenience but often face connectivity,
performance, and security issues. Below are the most common WLAN problems along
with their causes and solutions.

1. Connectivity Issues
Problem: Weak or No Signal (Dead Zones)

 Causes:

o Distance from the router

o Physical obstructions (walls, metal objects)
o Interference from other devices (microwaves, Bluetooth)
 Solutions:

o Reposition the router to a central location

o Use Wi-Fi extenders or mesh networks
o Upgrade to a dual-band or tri-band router

Problem: Frequent Disconnections

 Causes:

o Overloaded network (too many devices)

o Outdated router firmware
o Channel congestion (neighboring Wi-Fi networks)
 Solutions:
o Limit connected devices or enable QoS (Quality of Service)
o Update the router’s firmware
o Switch to a less congested Wi-Fi channel (use tools like Wi-Fi Analyzer)

2. Slow Wi-Fi Speeds

Problem: Slow Internet Despite High-Speed Plan

 Causes:

o ISP throttling
o Bandwidth-heavy applications (streaming, downloads)
o Old router (802.11n instead of Wi-Fi 6)
 Solutions:

o Run a speed test ([Link]) to check ISP performance

o Use Ethernet for high-bandwidth tasks (gaming, 4K streaming)
o Upgrade to a Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) router

Problem: Slow Local File Transfers (Between Devices)

 Causes:

o Weak signal between devices

o Interference from other networks
 Solutions:

o Use 5 GHz band (less interference than 2.4 GHz)

o Enable MU-MIMO (for multiple device communication)

3. Security Risks
 Problem: Unauthorized Access (Hacking, Piggybacking)

 Causes:

o Weak passwords (WEP encryption)

o Open or poorly secured networks
 Solutions:

o Use WPA3 encryption (or at least WPA2)

o Disable WPS (Wi-Fi Protected Setup) (vulnerable to brute-force attacks)
o Enable MAC address filtering (for stricter device control)

Problem: Rogue Access Points (Fake Wi-Fi Networks)

 Causes:

o Attackers set up malicious hotspots with similar names

 Solutions:

o Verify the correct SSID before connecting

o Use a VPN on public Wi-Fi

4. Interference & Channel Congestion

Problem: Wi-Fi Drops When Using Other Devices

 Causes:

o Bluetooth devices, microwaves, cordless phones (2.4 GHz interference)

o Too many networks on the same channel
 Solutions:

o Switch to 5 GHz band (less interference)

o Use Wi-Fi analyzer tools to find the best channel
 5. Device-Specific Issues
Problem: Some Devices Can’t Connect

 Causes:

o Incompatible Wi-Fi standards (e.g., old devices not supporting WPA3)

o IP address conflicts
 Solutions:

o Enable legacy mode (if using WPA3)

o Restart the router to refresh DHCP leases

Problem: Laptop/Phone Connects but No Internet

 Causes:

o Incorrect DNS settings

o ISP outage
 Solutions:

o Try Google DNS ([Link] / [Link])

o Restart the modem/router

6. Advanced WLAN Problems

Problem: High Latency (Lag in Gaming/VoIP Calls)

 Solutions:

o Enable QoS (Quality of Service) to prioritize traffic

o Use Ethernet instead of Wi-Fi for gaming

Problem: Roaming Issues (Weak Handoff Between Access Points)

 Solutions:
o Implement 802.11k/v/r (Fast Roaming) protocols
o Use a mesh Wi-Fi system for seamless transitions

Hidden Station and Exposed Station Problems in Wireless Networks

In wireless networks, the Hidden Station Problem and the Exposed Station
Problem are two key issues that affect communication efficiency, particularly
in CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)-based
systems like Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11). Let's break them down:

Hidden Station Problem :-

Definition:

A hidden station refers to a scenario where two transmitting stations (nodes) are out of
range of each other but within range of a common receiver. Since they cannot detect
each other's transmissions, they may transmit simultaneously, causing a collision at the
receiver.

Example:

 Nodes A and C are trying to send data to Node B.

 A and C cannot hear each other (hidden from each other).
 If A is transmitting, C (unaware of A's transmission) may also transmit, leading to a
collision at B.

Solution:

 RTS/CTS (Request-to-Send / Clear-to-Send) handshake (used in 802.11):

o Before sending data, the sender transmits an RTS frame.

o The receiver replies with a CTS frame.
o Nearby stations hearing CTS defer their transmissions.
 Exposed Station Problem :-
Definition:

An exposed station occurs when a node refrains from transmitting even though it
could do so without causing interference. This happens because it incorrectly senses
another transmission that would not actually interfere with its intended receiver.

Example:

 Node B is transmitting to Node A.

 Node C wants to send data to Node D (outside A's range).
 C senses B's transmission and unnecessarily backs off, even though its transmission
to D would not cause a collision.

Solution:

 RTS/CTS can help but is not perfect.

 Directional antennas or power control can reduce unnecessary blocking.
 Better carrier sensing mechanisms (e.g., dual-channel sensing).

Comparison Table

Problem Hidden Station Exposed Station

Two senders can't detect each A sender unnecessarily backs off due
Definition
other but interfere at the receiver. to sensing another transmission.

Unnecessary delay, wasted

Effect Collisions at the receiver.
bandwidth.

Solution RTS/CTS handshake. Better sensing, directional antenna

 Bluetooth :-

Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It
is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data
communications over smaller distances. This generation changed into being
invented via Ericson in 1994. It operates within the unlicensed, business,
scientific, and clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending upon the version, it presents
information up to at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps. The spreading method that it
uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping unfold spectrum). A Bluetooth network is
called a piconet and a group of interconnected piconets is called a scatter
net.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and
headphones connect to each other and share information without needing
cables. Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving
data using radio waves. It can be paired with the other device which has also
Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated communication range to
connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called
piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Key Features of Bluetooth
 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications
standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
Piconet
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called
the master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus,
we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a
distance of 10 meters. The communication between the primary and
secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave
communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it
gets converted to the active state.

Scatternet
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in
one piconet can act as master or we can say primary in another
piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a master
in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other
piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node is
referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in
two piconets.

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

 Radio (RF) Layer: It specifies the details of the air interface,
including frequency, the use of frequency hopping and
 transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation of
the data into RF signals. It defines the physical
characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two
types of physical links: connection-less and connection-
oriented.
 Baseband Link Layer: The baseband is the digital engine of
a Bluetooth system and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer
in LANs. It performs the connection establishment within a
piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power
control.
 Link Manager Protocol Layer: It performs the
management of the already established links which includes
authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible
for creating the links, monitoring their health, and
terminating them gracefully upon command or failure.
 Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol
Layer: It is also known as the heart of the Bluetooth
protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper
and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It
packages the data packets received from upper layers into
the form expected by lower layers. It also performs
segmentation and multiplexing.
 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) Layer: It is short for
Service Discovery Protocol. It allows discovering the services
available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.
 RF Comm Layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is
short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial
interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation of
 serial ports over the logical link control and adaption
protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI
standard TS 07.10.
 OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication
protocol to exchange objects between 2 devices.
 WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for
internet access.
 TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides
telephony service. The basic function of this layer is call
control (setup & release) and group management for the
gateway serving multiple devices.
 Application Layer: It enables the user to interact with the
application.
 Bluetooth Protocol Stack
Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market
nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker

system without the use of mobile phones.

 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music

players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of

Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.

 Bluetooth-Equipped Printer: The printer can be used

when connected via Bluetooth with mobile phone or

laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To
use Global Positioning System (GPS) in cars, one can
connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch
the directions of the address.
Applications of Bluetooth
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and

LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wireless to a mobile phone.

 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs,

or files from one cell phone to another cell phone or

computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical healthcare, sports and

fitness, Military.
Advantages
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

 It can also penetrate through walls.

 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any

wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.

 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum in
Wireless Networks :-


Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a technique used

in wireless communication to spread the transmitted signal
over a wide frequency band. It uses a unique spreading code
called as pseudo-noise (PN) code to expand the signal’s
bandwidth. This spreading ensures that the signal appears as
noise across a broad spectrum, making it harder for
eavesdroppers to intercept or jam. DSSS is a form of spread
spectrum communication that plays an important role in
enhancing the security and reliability of wireless transmissions.
It’s widely used in technologies like Wi-Fi (802.11b), 3G, 4G,
and GPS systems where high-speed data transfer, noise
resistance, and secure communication are essential.
Key Components of DSSS
1. Pseudo-noise (PN) Code: A unique spreading code used
to expand the signal’s bandwidth, making it appear as
noise.
2. Chipping Sequence: A high-rate sequence that modulates
the signal, creating the spread spectrum effect.
3. DSSS Modulation Techniques: Modulation methods
like BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying) and QPSK
(Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) are used to encode the
signal.
4. Chip Rate vs Data Rate: The chip rate refers to the speed
at which the chipping sequence is applied, while the data
rate is the speed at which actual data is transmitted.
5. Correlation and Despreading: At the receiver end,
correlation with the PN code allows the receiver to
despread the signal and recover the transmitted data.
6. Synchronization: It ensures that the transmitter and
receiver are in sync, allowing for accurate data decoding.
7. Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR): DSSS improves the signal-
to-noise ratio, making the signal more resilient to noise
and interference.
8. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): DSSS is
commonly used in CDMA systems, where multiple users
share the same frequency by using different PN codes.
9. Matched Filter: A filter at the receiver that is tuned to the
PN code, maximizing signal detection and minimizing
errors.
10. DSSS Transmitter and Receiver: The transmitter
spreads the data using the PN code, while the receiver
despreads and decodes the signal.
Working of DSSS
1. Encoding the Data Signal: The original data is first
encoded using a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence to spread
the signal across a wider bandwidth.
2. Modulation: The encoded data is then modulated using
techniques like BPSK or QPSK to carry the information over
the carrier wave.
3. Signal Spreading: The modulated signal is multiplied by a
chipping sequence (PN code), expanding the signal's
bandwidth and making it less vulnerable to interference.
4. Transmission of the Spread Signal: The spread signal is
transmitted as a radio frequency (RF) signal, with the
increased bandwidth providing resistance to noise.
5. Reception of the Signal: The receiver picks up the
transmitted signal, which has been spread across a wide
frequency band.
6. Synchronization: Synchronization between the transmitter
and receiver ensures that both are using the same PN
sequence for decoding the signal.
7. Correlation and Despreading: At the receiver, the signal
is correlated with the same PN sequence used in encoding,
allowing the receiver to despread the signal and recover
the original data.
8. Demodulation: After despreading, the signal is
demodulated to retrieve the data, reversing the
modulation process.
9. Interference Rejection: The spread signal's wider
bandwidth allows it to reject interference and jamming,
improving signal quality in noisy environments.
10. Decoding: Finally, the data is decoded to its original
form, ready for further processing or use.
Technical Aspects of DSSS
Spreading Process
In DSSS, pseudo-noise (PN) code is used to spread the signal
over a broader frequency range. This process makes the signal
more resistant to interference and jamming by masking it
within a wide spectrum.
The chip rate refers to the speed at which the PN code is
applied to the data, while the data rate is the speed at which
the actual information is transmitted. A higher chip rate leads
to more bandwidth expansion, allowing for greater noise
resistance.
Despreading and Correlation
At the receiver end, the signal is correlated with the same PN
code used in spreading. This correlation helps despread the
signal, recovering the original data.
Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver is critical
to ensure that both devices use the same PN code and timing,
enabling accurate signal recovery and minimizing errors.
Modulation Techniques in DSSS
In DSSS, modulation techniques such as BPSK (Binary Phase
Shift Keying) and QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) are
commonly used. These techniques encode the data onto the
carrier signal, enabling efficient transmission of information
over the spread spectrum. BPSK and QPSK offer benefits like
error resilience, higher data rates, and efficient use of
bandwidth.
Advantages of DSSS
1. Interference Resistance: By distributing the signal over a
broad frequency range, DSSS reduces the effect of
interference, and the system becomes more robust against
external interference.
2. Jamming Immunity: The broad bandwidth of DSSS
provides greater immunity to jamming since it is more
difficult for attackers to jam the signal across the entire
spectrum.
3. Secure Communication: The signal is encoded with a
special PN code, making it hard for unauthorized
interception or decoding, thereby increasing security.
4. Multipath Mitigation: The receiver can extract the signal
even if it is reflected or scattered, mitigating multipath
interference.
5. CDMA Compatibility: The system is compatible
with CDMA, enabling multiple users to use the same
frequency band with different spreading codes.
6. Signal Integrity: The SNR remains high to preserve signal
integrity despite noise environments.
7. Simultaneous Users: There are no interfering users
despite having simultaneous access to the same frequency
band, increasing network capacity.
8. Robust Performance: Reliable communication across
different environments is assured with stability offered in
urban as well as rural settings.
Applications of DSSS
1. Wi-Fi (802.11b): Used in the Wi-Fi 802.11b standard to
offer interference immunity, providing stable
communication within short distances.
2. CDMA Networks: An integral part of CDMA networks,
allowing many users to communicate on the same
frequency band with varying spreading codes.
3. 3G, 4G, and 5G Networks: A central component of
cellular technologies such as 3G, 4G, and 5G, providing
secure and effective data transmission over broad
frequency bands.
4. GPS: Aids in propagating satellite signals, offering
enhanced resistance to noise and signal accuracy.
5. Military Communications: Employed for secure, jam-
resistant transmission, guaranteeing reliability and safety in
critical operations.
6. Satellite Communications: Offers enhanced resistance to
interference and signal quality in satellite systems for long-
distance communication.
7. IoT Devices: Minimizes interference and guarantees
reliable, low-power communication among a broad variety
of connected devices.
8. RFID Systems: Enhances performance by minimizing
interference and improving accuracy over longer
transmission ranges.
9. Bluetooth Coexistence: Assists in minimizing interference
between Bluetooth devices and other wireless systems to
provide smoother operation in dense frequency bands.
10. Cellular Backhaul: Provides high-quality signal
transmission between network towers to enhance overall
network performance.
Challenges and Limitations
1. Bandwidth Requirements: DSSS needs considerable
bandwidth to spread the signal, which can constrain
efficiency in systems with constrained spectrum.
2. Near-Far Problem: Transmitters close by dominate weaker
ones, producing interference and diminishing DSSS
efficiency in certain environments.
3. Synchronization Complexity: Synchronization between
the transmitter and receiver is important for successful
signal recovery. Timing errors can result in data loss.
4. Code Interference: Inefficient handling of PN codes in
multi-user systems can result in interference, impacting
communication quality.
5. Power Consumption: Increased power consumption due
to spreading and processing the signal is a constraint in
battery-powered devices such as IoT sensors.
6. Multipath Fading: Although DSSS avoids multipath
interference, severe cases of multipath fading can still
impair signal quality.
7. Receiver Sensitivity: DSSS demands highly sensitive
receivers to demodulate the spread signal. Inadequate
sensitivity may result in signal loss in some environments.
 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum in
Wireless Networks :-


Frequency-hopping spread spectrum is designed for robust

operation in noisy environments by transmitting short packets
at different frequencies across wide portions of channel
bandwidth. The receiver correlates these "near" signals against
each other and selects the best signal for demodulation, which
typically gives better performance compared with non-
frequency hopping receivers operating under similar
conditions.

In the spread spectrum, the information is transmitted in short

breaks of data at different carrier frequencies. In the frequency-
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), each component is
transmitted at a different carrier frequency. Conversely, multi-
carrier systems (such as OFDM) transmit multiple signals on a
single carrier frequency. The spread spectrum can be used to
send independent digital data streams across a noisy channel
by assigning different 'slots' to each signal.
In FHSS systems, the transmitted power is concentrated on one
or a few carriers at a time. The carrier frequencies are chosen in
accordance with a pseudo-random sequence or hopping
sequence that changes periodically, so as to prevent long-term
predictability of the carrier frequencies used. The receiver
correlates received signals against the sequence of the received
signals to determine which doesn't interfere from noise and
interference.
The exact form and implementation of the frequency-hopping
sequence are different for each radio system. The most widely
used sequence is the binary offset code, which is used
in Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4. Several sequence types have
been proposed, all of which implement the same concept: a
pseudo-random sequence that changes over time, making it
difficult to predict the next frequency. Some systems use
multiple parallel sequences so that even if one sequence is
compromised, others can be used to communicate.
The output of the pseudo-random number generator (PRNG)
is fed into a counter that sequentially counts up to the total
number of frequencies in one hop set (N). The PRNG and
counter are synchronized with an exactly matching clock at
both sender and receiver sides.
Advantages of FHSS:

Some of the major advantages are as follows:

 The processing gain PG is higher than that of DSSS system.
 The synchronization is not greatly dependent on the
distance.
 The serial search system with FHSS needs shorter time for
acquisition.

Issues Related to Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum in

Wireless Networks:

 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum uses complex

mathematical formulas that change over time and
simultaneously change at both sender and receiver sides.
The complexity of calculating the formula using a processor
or microprocessor is hard to understand.
 The accuracy of the frequency hopping spread spectrum is
too high (complexity) for some real-world scenarios such as
military communication because the number of different
sequences available is limited by the memory and
computational power at both sender and receiver sides,
which restricts its flexibility in assigning certain slots to
certain users.
 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum is too complex for
some real-world scenarios, because it may cause interference
between some channels, causing a clash and lack of mutual
understanding among users.
 The performance of the frequency hopping spread spectrum
can be influenced by temperature (temperature affects the
speed of frequency changing); it may also be affected by
interference between channels.