REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND

GROWTH IN MAMMALS
Each testis is made up of coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules. The sperms develop
inside the tubules.
INTRODUCTION In between the seminiferous tubules are
the cells of Leydig which secrete the male
sex hormone, testosterone. Luteinizing
Reproduction is the process by which
hormone secreted by the pituitary gland
organisms produce offspring of the same
stimulates these cells to secrete
kind.
testosterone.
The organs that are necessary for the
reproductive processes is termed as the
The seminiferous tubules join together to
reproductive system.
form the epididymis.
It is coiled on the back of the testis. The
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
sperms mature in the epididymis..
OF THE MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Male reproductive system
The reproductive system of male consists
of a pair of testes (situated in the scrotal
sac), epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, prostate,
bulbourethral glands and penis.

Testes Male reproductive system

The two testes (singular, testis) develop
inside the abdominal cavity and descend The vas deferens
into the scrotum. The vas deferens is the continuation of the
epididymis.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

It joins the tube from the seminal vesicle to

form the ejaculatory duct which joins that Structure of the sperm
part of the urethra which is inside the Each sperm cell consists of a head, middle
prostate. piece and tail. The tail with its whipping
movements helps to propel the sperm
The seminal vesicles forwards to meet the ovum in the fallopian
The seminal vesicles are a pair of glandular tube.
structures situated behind the urinary
bladder. They secrete a fluid which
becomes part of the semen. It is rich in Structure of a sperm
fructose which provides the energy for the
sperms. Female reproductive system
Ejaculatory ducts The female reproductive organs are the
There are two ejaculatory ducts; each is vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and
formed by the union of the vas deferens ovary.
and the tube from the seminal vesicle. The
two ejaculatory ducts open into the
urethra.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The prostate gland
The prostate gland secretes and stores a
clear fluid which is slightly alkaline in
nature. This fluid along with sperms and
the fluid from the seminal vesicles
constitute the semen. The alkalinity of
semen neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
and prolongs the life of sperms.

Penis
Has a sensory tip known as glans penis and
a long shaft made of erectile tissue which
when engorged with blood becomes erect.

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The vagina is a fibro muscular tubular tract which the ovum is released is called
leading from the uterus to the exterior of ovulation.
the body in female mammals. The vagina is .
the place where semen from the male is
deposited into the female's body.
The lips of the vagina are referred to as
vulva. FERTILIZATION, DEVELOPMENT

Cervix OF THE ZYGOTE AND BIRTH IN

The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of
the uterus where it joins with the top end
HUMANS
of the vagina. The cervix is also called the
neck of the uterus.
Fertilization is the process in which the
nuclei of the male and female gametes
Uterus
fuse together to form a zygote.
The uterus or womb is a pear-shaped
muscular organ. Its major function is to
Stages in fertilization
accept a fertilized ovum which becomes
implanted into the endometrium, and
Approach of sperm
derives nourishment from blood vessels
The first step is the sperm swimming
towards the ovum.
Fallopian tubes
The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two
Attachment of sperm
tubes leading from the ovaries of female
The second step of fertilization is the
mammals into the uterus. Fertilization of
attachment of several sperm to the egg's
the ovum occurs here.
surface coat.
Ovaries
The ovaries are small, paired organs that
are located near the lateral walls of the
pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible
for the production of the ova and the
secretion of hormones. The process by

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After nuclear fusion, the fertilized egg is

called a zygote. When the zygote divides to
a two-cell stage, it is called an embryo.

Pregnancy and childbirth

Implantation
After fertilization, the egg undergoes cell
division, or cleavage. Thus, one cell divides
into two; the daughter cells, called
Fig. 60.1: Attachment of sperm to the egg
blastomeres, and then cleave into four;
these cleave into eight, and so on. When
the embryo consists of a hundred or more
Penetration of sperm
cells it may form a solid mass, called a
The third step is a complex process in which
blastocyst. The blastocyst enters the
the sperm penetrate the egg surface coat.
uterus through the Fallopian tube and
The head, or front end, of the sperm
implants itself in the lining of the uterus
contains an acrosome, the acrosome
(uterine wall) and continues development
releases proteins that dissolve the surface
into an embryo.
coat of the egg.
A single sperm is then able to make a slit-
like channel in the surface coat, through
which it swims to reach the egg's cell
membrane. When more than one sperm
enters the egg, the resulting zygote
typically develops abnormally.

Fusion of sex cells

The next step in fertilization is the fusion of
sex cells. When the membranes fuse, a
implantation
single sperm and the egg become one cell.
Pregnancy
After fusion the male sex cell becomes
Pregnancy starts right after implantation.
motionless. The female gamete pulls the
The pregnancy period is divided into three
male gamete into itself. Filaments called
stages known as trimesters.

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end of the second trimester, the foetus has

First trimester: During the first three reached about 19 cm in length.
months or trimester of pregnancy the
placenta develops in the uterus to pass
nutrients and oxygen from the mother to
the foetus through the umbilical cord; it
also removes waste products from the
foetus. In the fourth week the heart begins
to beat, and by the eighth week the
cardiovascular system (heart and blood
vessels) becomes fully functional. By the
end of the first trimester all internal organs
are functional, the genital organs may be Fig. 60.3

visible, and blood cell formation begins in

the bone marrow. Third trimester: In the third trimester the
The unborn baby is called a foetus. foetus prepares for survival outside of the
mother's uterus. The internal organs
mature, temperature regulation develops,
and the lungs begin to produce surfactant,
a foamy fluid that prevents the lungs from
collapsing when the infant exhales. Some
of the mother's antibodies pass through
the placenta to the foetus, establishing a
primitive immune system that protects the
foetus from disease. Nails form on the
Second trimester: In the second trimester fingers and toes. Toward the last weeks of
the foetus’ eyes start to blink and the lips pregnancy, the baby may assume a head
perform sucking motions. By week 17 the down position as it prepares for birth.
foetus moves into a foetal position in which After the third trimester or 9 months, the
the body lies curled up on one side with the baby is ready to be born.
head bowed and the legs and arms drawn
in toward the chest. By week 20 the
mother can feel the foetus moving. At the

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Fig. 60.5
Fig. 60.4

The process of birth In the final stage of labour, the uterus

The mother undergoes labour. Labour continues to contract and the placenta
involves rhythmic uterine contractions detaches from the uterus and is expelled.
which grow progressively stronger. Each
contraction shortens the muscle fibres in
the uterus, pulling the cervix (uterine
opening) wider. In this early stage of labour
the cervix dilates (opens) to about 4 cm.

As the first stage of labour ends, the labour

Fig. 60.6
pattern changes. Contractions become
Formation of twins
more painful and occur closer together. As
Twins or multiple birth is a birth of more
labour progresses the cervix opens to its
than one offspring at a time. Multiple
full width of 10 cm. The baby's head begins
births in human arise either from the
to rotate to fit through the birth canal.
simultaneous impregnation of more than
one ovum or from the impregnation of a
After the cervix becomes fully dilated,
single ovum that divides into two or more
contractions become very intense and
parts, each of which develops into a
usually last a minute or longer. With each
distinct embryo.
contraction the baby continues to descend
through the birth canal.
Identical twins

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Identical twins are formed when two

offspring develop from a single egg. They
are always of the same sex, resemble one
another very closely, and have similar
fingerprints and blood types.

Fraternal twins
Fraternal twins are offspring produced
from separate ova fertilized by separate
sperm. They are not necessarily of the
same sex and may have the usual family
resemblance of brothers and sisters.
Multiple births may be achieved artificially
by implanting in the uterus several
fertilized ova.
Conjoined twins/Siamese twins

Siamese twins Parental care (Care for the young)

Siamese twins, also known as conjoined Caring for the young has three main stages:
twins, are a set of identical twins that are ❖ Ante-natal or pre-natal care
joined together. Identical twins form when ❖ Post-natal care
a fertilized egg starts to split into two parts ❖ Child care
but fails to split completely during its early
development and the embryos remain Ante-natal care
linked, resulting in conjoined twins. During pregnancy the mother undergoes a
Conjoined twins may be attached only by a lot of changes, such as a missed menstrual
cord of tissue, or they may be fused at period, breast tenderness and swelling,
some part of the body, such as the head, fatigue, nausea or sensitivity to smells,
chest, or leg. Sometimes they share one or increased frequency of urination, mood
more internal organs, such as the heart or swings, and weight gains. Some women
liver, or they may have a common also experience cravings for unusual
circulatory system. substances such as ice, clay, or cornstarch;
this condition, called pica, can indicate a
dietary deficiency in iron or other

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

nutrients. The first few months of restored. The mother must also bath
pregnancy are the most critical for the regularly with soap and use antiseptics and
developing infant, because during this disinfectants to help the wound left by the
period the infant‘s brain, arms, legs, and placenta‘s attachment on the uterine wall
internal organs are formed. For this reason to heal. The mother must also eat a well
a pregnant woman should be especially balanced diet to enable her get the
careful about taking any kind of medication necessary nutrients she needs.
except on the advice of a physician who
knows that she is pregnant. This means Importance of post-natal care
that it is advisable for a pregnant woman to 1. Post-natal care helps restore the
visit the doctor regularly. X-rays should mother to her usual form.
also be avoided (as it can cause 2. It helps prevent post-delivery
miscarriage), and pregnant women should complications.
avoid smoking and alcohol consumption. 3. It helps the mother to get healed from
the wound left by the placenta‘s
Importance of pre-natal care attachment on the uterus.
1. Pre-natal care reduces the number of
maternal and foetal death. Child care (parental care)
2. It reduces complications Humans are the only group of mammals
during labour. who keep their young ones with them for
3. It improves the general health of both a longer time. The baby needs much care
mother and child. during the early stages of its life. At these
4. It helps the mother to have a safe stages, breast feeding is very essential,
delivery. especially during the first six months.
5. It diagnoses abnormalities for early Bottle feeding can be introduced as time
treatment. goes on. The baby should also be bathed
regularly to keep it clean, insulated from
Post-natal care cold by properly wrapping it up,
It is recommended that the mother after immunized, vaccinated etc.
birth undertakes regular exercises
prescribed by the doctor or midwife. This is Importance of parental care
to ensure that her muscles which were 1. It enables the baby to adapt itself to
over-stretched during childbirth are the outside conditions.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

2. It prevents the baby from contracting Prevention of miscarriage

diseases. 1. Treatment for threatened miscarriage
3. It keeps the bond between the mother usually consists of bed rest. Almost
and the baby. continuous bed rest throughout
pregnancy is required in some cases of
repeated miscarriage.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH 2. Vitamin and hormone therapy also
may be given.
3. Surgical correction of uterine
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
abnormalities may be needed in
certain cases.
Miscarriage
Miscarriage is the term for spontaneous
Ectopic pregnancy
abortion; the unintentional termination of
This is the development of a fertilized egg
a pregnancy before the foetus is capable of
outside the womb.
independent life.

Causes of ectopic pregnancy

Causes of miscarriage
1. Cervical abnormalities: If the cervical
1. Abnormal development of the embryo
mucus thickens it may cause the
or of the placental tissue, which links
fertilized egg to get stuck in the
the embryo to the mother.
fallopian tube and not get to the
2. Severe vitamin deficiencies.
womb.
3. Hormone deficiencies.
2. Abdominal pregnancy: This is the
4. Acute infectious diseases
condition where the zygote is expelled
5. Systemic diseases such as nephritis
into the abdominal cavity through the
(kidney disease) and diabetes, and
ovarian end of the fallopian tube.
severe trauma.
3. Abnormal egg development: If the
6. Uterine malformations, including
morula (a ball of divided zygote)
tumors, are responsible in some
develops rapidly than normal, it will
instances.
implant itself in the fallopian tube.
7. Extreme anxiety and other
4. Ovarian pregnancy: This problem
psychological disturbances.
arises when fertilization occurs in the
Graafian follicle (a small fluid-filled sac

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

in the ovary). This may cause the ovary

to rupture. Causes of infertility in women
Hormonal deficiency: Normally one egg
Effects of ectopic pregnancy will be released each month about midway
1. Infection of dead foetus may be through the menstrual cycle, under the
poisonous and have severe direction of several hormones. If any of
complications. these hormones are not functioning,
2. The growth of a foetus in the fallopian ovulation will occur irregularly or perhaps
tube may weaken it and cause it to not at all. Disorders of the endocrine
move out of place. system, including thyroid disease, diabetes
3. Ectopic pregnancy can also result in mellitus, and polycystic ovarian syndrome
infertility on the part of the mother may cause infertility in women.

Infertility Harmful chemicals can affect hormonal

Infertility is the inability to conceive or levels and adversely affect fertility.
carry a child to term. People who suffer
from infertility can seek medical advice to Cervical problems: Once inside the
identify the cause of infertility and undergo female‘s cervix, sperm may encounter
treatment. obstacles. The cervical mucus (thick fluid
that protects the cervix and uterus from
Causes of infertility in men infection) may be too thick for the sperm to
penetrate, or it may be chemically hostile
Low sperm count is the most frequent
to the sperm. A fertilized egg may become
cause of male infertility. Although
stuck in the fallopian tube and result in an
ultimately only one sperm is required for
ectopic pregnancy.
fertilization, men whose semen contains
less than 20 million sperm per milliliter
Infertility in women is also caused by being
frequently have infertility problems.
born with a malformed cervical canal. An
impaired cervical canal can prevent
Other causes of infertility in men include:
passage of sperm from the vagina to the
❖ Premature ejaculation
uterus as the sperm travel toward the
❖ Impotence
fallopian tubes.
❖ Absence of vas deferens (sperm duct)
due to diseases or infection.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

Other causes of infertility in women Practices that temporarily result in lowered

include: sperm counts or damaged sperm can be
❖ Blockage in the fallopian tube. curtailed, such as the use of certain
❖ Constantly working near fire. medications, alcohol, marijuana, and hot
❖ Exposure to x-rays. tubs. If these noninvasive measures are
❖ Excessive hard work – prevents unsuccessful, a doctor may recommend
ovulation. fertility drugs or assisted reproductive
❖ Dietary deficiency – not getting the technologies.
needed vitamins, protein or minerals.
❖ Sexually transmitted diseases – STDs Impotence
such as syphilis and gonorrhoea lead This is the inability of the penis to erect.
to the infection of the reproductive Since the penis cannot erect it cannot
organs. penetrate the vagina, thus no sexual
intercourse.

Causes of impotence
Treatment of infertility ❖ Damage to the part of the spinal cord
Once the cause or causes of infertility are where impulses which help in sexual
determined, doctors devise a strategy for act play
the couple to increase their fertility. ❖ Damage to parasympathetic nerve
Structural problems, such as varicoceles or supplies to the penis.
blocked ejaculatory ducts in men and ❖ Damage to the sensory nerve supply to
fallopian tube obstruction in women, can the penis, epithelium or scrotum which
be treated by surgery. When no structural leads to loss of sensory sensation.
problems are identified, infertility
treatments usually begin with non-invasive Fibroid
measures. Sometimes only small A seemingly harmless growth or tumor
adjustments in the frequency and timing of composed of fibrous muscle tissue,
sexual intercourse are required to bring especially one that develops in the walls of
about pregnancy. Couples are instructed the uterus and is associated with painful
on how to identify when a woman is and excessive menstrual flow.
ovulating so that they can plan sexual
intercourse around her most fertile time. Causes of fibroid

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

❖ Artificial hormones ❖ Infected follicle: Sometimes when the

❖ Hereditary: follicle becomes infected, it develops
into an ovarian cyst.
Effects of fibroid ❖ Hormonal imbalance: An imbalance in
❖ Fibroid located in the uterine cavity the hormones produced by the
may prevent fertilization by blocking pituitary gland can cause ovarian cyst.
the entrance of the fallopian tube.
❖ It may prevent implantation, causing CASE STUDY:
infertility in some women.
A childless couple thinks their problem is due to
❖ It may grow and occupy much of the
witchcraft. Use scientific method and reasoning to
space in the uterus, leaving a little explain the possible the infertility. causes of
space for the foetus. This may result in
miscarriage. PHASES OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN HUMANS
Fibroids can be removed with a special
surgical operation known as myomectomy. The irreversible increase in size and weight
The woman may then regain her fertility. is called growth.
In humans, growth is accompanied by
Ovarian cyst development, which is the continuous
Ovarian cyst is a benign (non-cancerous) or change from one stage of life to another.
harmless growth or tumor in a fluid filled The stages or phases of growth and
sac called a cyst. Many women, especially development in humans are:
younger women, develop ovarian cysts. ❖ Infancy
They do not usually display any symptoms ❖ Childhood
unless they grow so large as to cause a ❖ Adolescence
visible swelling of the abdomen. Ovarian ❖ Adulthood
cysts sometimes disappear without ❖ Old-age
treatment; in other cases, they must be
removed surgically. Infancy
Infancy is the period from birth to about 2
Causes of ovarian cyst years of age. This first stage of life is an
important time, characterized by physical
and emotional growth and development.

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By two days after birth infants can Also known as the pre-school age, is the
discriminate odours. period from age two to age six (2 -.6 years).
Within three months they can distinguish At this stage the child‘s physical and mental
colour and form. abilities develop. The child would have a
Newborns perform motor movements, better control over the language and could
many of which are reflexive. Soon after express itself more clearly with a stock of
birth they gain voluntary control of words. It would also engage in more
movements. The major stages of physical activities such as running, jumping
locomotion are crawling, creeping and and climbing.
walking. The average infant walks between
13 and 15 months of age. Later childhood
Normal infants possess neurological This stage is from age six to ten (6 – 10
systems that detect and store speech years). During this stage, the child‘s mental
sounds, permit reproduction of these capacity increases considerably. They can
sounds, and eventually produce language. solve simple problems and influence or be
Infants utter all known speech sounds, but influenced by their peers.
retain only those heard regularly. Girls at this stage grow much faster than
During the first 24 months the average boys. Boys and girls recognize their gender
child makes considerable gains in height difference and therefore do not play
and weight, begins teething, develops together as often as they used to.
sensory discrimination, and begins to walk
and talk.

Childhood
The childhood stage is the period from age
two to ten; but due to some distinct
changes that occur, the childhood stage
can be divided into early childhood and
later childhood.

Early childhood
Fig. 60.8: Phases of growth

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Secondary sexual characteristic in females

Adolescence 1. Development and enlargement of
Adolescence is the stage of maturation breasts
between childhood and adulthood. The 2. Growth of pubic hair
term denotes the period from the 3. Broadening of hips
beginning of puberty to maturity. It usually 4. Ovulation and menstruation start.
starts at about age 12 in males and age 10
in females. Adulthood
Dramatic changes in physical stature and From the age of 20 upward marks the
features are associated with the onset of adulthood stage in a person‘s life. At this
pubescence. stage, physical growth begins to cease.
The activity of the pituitary gland at this Increase in size in most people is due to
time results in the increased secretion of presence of extra fats deposited under the
hormones, with widespread physiological skin. There is a strong sense of maturity
effects. Growth hormone produces a rapid and independence as the person ventures
growth spurt, which brings the body close out to try new things.
to its adult height and weight in about two
years. The growth spurt occurs earlier Old age
among females than males, also indicating The final stage of growth and development
that females mature sexually earlier than in humans is old age, otherwise known as
males. During adolescence, the individuals the senescence. During this stage several
develop some characteristics known as general changes take place in the human
secondary sexual characteristics. body: hearing and vision decline, muscle
strength lessens, soft tissues such as skin
Secondary sexual characteristics in males and blood vessels become less flexible, and
1. Growth of facial, bodily, and pubic hair. there is an overall decline in body tone.
2. Deepening of voice Most of the body's organs perform less
3. Enlargement of penis efficiently with advancing age.
4. Body becomes muscular
5. Chest broadens Menopause
6. Production of sperms starts. Boys at From about age 45 to age 55 women
this stage normally have wet dreams. undergo a stage known as menopause.
This is the stage where menstruation stops.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

At this stage, women develop many bodily Advantages of male circumcision

as well as psychological changes. Some of 1. Smegma, a sebaceous gland which
these changes are rather problematic. collects under the foreskin of the penis
is believed to cause diseases such as
Problems associated with menopause 1. cancer. Therefore, removing the
Women become depressed. foreskin eliminates smegma.
2. They become restless. 2. Circumcision is believed to reduce
3. They experience hot flashes. penile cancer. This is because germs
4. They normally have night sweats. that cause penile cancer are eliminated
5. They experience disturbed sleep. during circumcision.
6. Their mood changes. 3. The foreskin is very soft and may easily
get irritated or swollen with little
pressure.

Disadvantages of male circumcision

Circumcision is the surgical removal of all 1. The wound inflicted may be easily
or part of the foreskin of the human male infected by germs and cause serious
penis. infections.
2. It may result in excessive hemorrhage
In females, it is the removal of the skin (bleeding) from the wound, which can
prepuce covering the clitoris or the clitoris lead to death.
itself and sometimes the lip of the vagina. 3. If unsterilized instruments are used for
the operations, they may carry disease
In some cases, the labia manora and labia causing pathogens that can infect the
majora are stitched together. Female person circumcised.
circumcision is illegal in Ghana, though 4. The operation is normally performed
some communities secretly practice it. without any anesthetic, thus, very
painful.
Circumcision, although done for various 5. Unsterilized instruments used may be
reasons, (including medical, cultural and infected with HIV/AIDS or other blood
religious reasons), has its positive and related diseases.
negative impacts.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

Advantages of female circumcision The TEST QUESTIONS

advantages presented in favour of female
circumcision have no scientific basis, but
proponents believe that the removal of the 1. a) i. What is reproduction?
clitoris: allows free outflow of urine; ii. List three reproductive structures
❖ allows direct dilation of the vagina each of male and female and
during birth, making delivery easier; state their functions.
❖ makes penetration of the vagina by the b) i. What are male and female
penis during sexual intercourse easier. circumcision? ii. Mention
three advantages and three
Disadvantages of female circumcision disadvantages each of male
1. The vaginal wall, the vulva and the and female circumcision.
bladder can be damaged.
2. Sexual intercourse becomes painful 2. a) i. Explain the term fertilization.
and not enjoyable. ii. Briefly describe the process of
3. Childbirth may become difficult zygote development and birth in
because of the stitched labia minora humans.
and labia majora. a) Describe the formation of:
4. The wound inflicted may be easily i. Identical twins
infected by germs and lead to ii. Fraternal twins
infections. iii. Siamese twins
5. It may result in excessive hemorrhage
from the wound. 3. a) Explain the following stages of
6. If unsterilized instruments are used for childcare and state two importance of
the operations, they may carry disease each stage:
causing pathogens that can infect the i. ante-natal
person circumcised. ii. post-natal
7. The operation is normally performed iii. childcare
without any anesthetics, thus, very b) Mention five problems
painful. associated with
8. Unsterilized instruments used may be reproduction in humans, their
infected with HIV/AIDS. causes and remedies.

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30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking

4. a) Describe the phases of growth and

development in humans.
b) i. Write a short note on four
sexually transmitted
diseases.
ii. Mention four ways by which
sexually transmitted diseases
can be prevented.

5. (a) i. What is menopause?

ii. State three signs shown by

women in their menopause.
b) State three secondary sexual
characteristics shown by both
boys and girls in their
adolescence.

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18