-0-

TEXTILE PROCESSING
A BRIEF OVERVIEW

Industrial Experience Nots By:

Mohsin Zia

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -1-

Preface:
Textile processing is one of the most essential and sophisticated segments of
the textile industry. Generally, in overall textile's perspective, the processing is
actually finishing of textile, followed by spinning and weaving. This book
provides a step-by-step overview of each process from grey fabric to finished
and usable fabrics for garments, home textiles, and other applications. It is
written in simple, clear language for anyone interested in understanding how
(grey, greige or raw) fabric processed.
Textile processing is a science as well as an art. It is an art because it requires
experience along with skill. All recipes and parameters are generic, but can be
helpful for getting started and understanding the concept.
The main focus will be cotton and polyester woven fabrics but other
fibres/fabrics will be introduced as required to understand the concept. Since
textile processing takes place on fabrics, it is important to first learn about
fabrics, the first chapter will be all about the fabrics.

Mohsin Zia
Email: zia8248@[Link]

You can mail for direct contact number!

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -2-

Index

Chapter 1) FABRIC ………………………………………………………………………. 4

o Fibre ……………………………………………………………..…………5
o Fibbers to Yarn (Spinning) ……………………………………..………..9
o Yarn to Fabric (Weaving/Knitting) ……………….……………………..12
o Parameters of Fabric …………………………….………………………15
o Different types of Fabrics ………………………….………...………….23

Chapter 2) PRE-TREATMENT ……….………………………………………….……. 27

o Singeing ………………………………………………………………….. 28
o Desizing ………………………………………………………………….. 30
o Scouring ………………………………………………………………….. 34
o Bleaching ………………………………………………………………… 37
o Mercerizing ………………………………………………………………. 41
o Stentering ………………………………………..………………………. 45

Chapter 3) THEORY OF DYES AND COLORS ………….……………..……….. 46

o Light ………………………………………………………………………. 47
o Theory of Dyes ………………………………………………………….. 48
o Color Fastness ……………………………………………………………53
o Color Models and Matching ……………………………………………..59

Chapter 4) TEXTILE CHEMISTRY …………….…………………..……….………… 66

o Terms ……………………………………………………..……………… 67
o Axillaries …………………………………………………………………. 70
o Chemicals …………………………………………………………………74

Chapter 5): DYEING …………………………….………………………………………… 78

o Lab Dips ……………………………………………………….………… 79
o Direct Dyes Dyeing ………………………………………...…………… 82
o Reactive Dyes Dyeing ………………………………………………….. 85
o Disperse Dyes Dyeing ……………………………..…………………… 90
o Vat Dyes Dyeing …………………………………………..……………. 94
o Azoic Dyeing ………………………………………………………….…. 98
o Pigment Dying ………………………………………...………………… 101

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -3-

Chapter 6) PRINTING …………………………………………………..…….………….. 104

o Introduction of Printing …………………………………………………105
o Textile Design ………………………………………………..………….107
o Methods of Printing ………………………………………………….….111
o Style of Printing …………………………………………………….……121

Chapter 7) FINISHING …………………………………………………………….……… 137

o Introduction …………………………………………………….………..138
o Physical Finishing ………………………………………………..……..139
o Chemical Finishing …………………………………………..………….144

Chapter 8) OTHER ASPECTS ………………………………………………..……….. 150

o Lab and QC ………………………………………………………...……151
o Utilities ……………………………………………………………..…….155
o Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) …………………………….………….170
o Conclusion …………………………………………………………...…..175

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -4-

Chapter (1

FABRIC

Fibers

Fiber to Yarn (Spinning)

Yarn to Fabric (Knitting, Weaving)

Parameters of Fabric

Different types of Fabrics

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -5-

Fibres
Introduction
Textile fibres are the basic building blocks of all fabrics. They are classified into natural fibres and
man-made fibres.

Natural fibres:
 Cotton: Soft, breathable, widely used in garments
 Wool: Warm, elastic, used for winter wear
 Silk: Smooth, lustrous, used for luxury fabrics
 Linen: Strong, absorbent, used for summer clothing and home textiles
Man-made fibres:
 Polyester: Strong, wrinkle-resistant
 Nylon: Durable, elastic
 Rayon: Semi-synthetic, soft, good drape
 Acrylic: Lightweight, wool-like

1. Cotton fibre
Cotton is the most widely used natural fiber in the world, belonging to the cellulosic family. It is
obtained from the seed hair of the Goss pium plant.

Microscopic structure:
Cross-Section, kidney-shaped or bean-shaped, contains a central canal called the lumen, appears twisted
like a ribbon, waxy, thin outer layer Primary Wall gives fiber strength thick cellulose layer.

Chemical composition:
Cellulose 88–95%
Water 5–8%
Waxes, fats 0.6–1.0%
Proteins 0.5–1.5%
Pectins 0.7–1.2%
Ash (minerals) 1–1.5%

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -6-

Cellulose is the major component, making cotton hydrophilic, absorbent, and reactive in chemical
processing.

1.1 Properties of cotton fibre

Physical properties:
a) Staple length: 1 to 4 cm good in staple length (Egyptian, Puma, etc)
b) Fibre fineness: 3.5 to 10 microns
c) Density: 1.54 g/em³
d) Moisture absorbency: 8 to 8.5% wet 15 to 20%
e) Strength: strong, more than any other natural fibre
f) Elasticity: 5 to 10 %
g) Resiliency: low resiliency
h) Shrinkage: in first wash, to settle if any tension
i) Effect of heat: not much, but pressing with high heat gives scorch marks on fabric
Chemical properties:
a) Action of acid: strong acid get effected fibres, deluded acid must be used.
b) Action of Alkaline: generally, alkali is not harmful.
c) Action of bleaching: excess amount or repeated bleaching may affect strength.
d) Affinity of dyes: reactive, direct, vat, azo, etc.
e) Effects of mildew/moth: long time in moisture or wetness destroyed by fungus.

2. Polyester fibre
Polyester fiber is a strong, man-made synthetic material derived from petroleum, known for its
durability, wrinkle resistance, quick-drying, and affordability. It's a long-chain polymer, typically
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), made by combining alcohol and acid, then spun into fibers that
hold color well but are not breathable and contribute to microplastic pollution when washed.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -7-

2.1 Properties of polyester fibre

Physical properties:
a) Staple length: to blend with cotton 1 to 12 cm. while filament yarns are continuous, long
strands.
b) Fibre fineness: 1.2 to 15 dtex
c) Density of fibre: 1.38 to 1.40 g/cm³
d) Moisture absorbency: very low, dries quickly
e) Strength: strong, durable and wrinkle resistant
f) Elasticity: 10 to 40 % high tensile strength
g) Resiliency: good resiliency
h) Shrinkage: resist stretching and shrinkage
i) Effect of heat: good thermal insulation, good pleat retention after heat setting
Chemical properties:
a) Action of acid: generally resistant to dilute acids, but strong or hot acids can still cause the
slow hydrolysis of ester linkages, degrading the fibres over time.
b) Action of Alkaline: a high concentration degrades polyester fibres (more quickly with
temperature by saponifying ester linkages, a process called alkaline hydrolysis.
c) Action of bleaching: H²O² is safe, but chlorine bleach can turn it to yellow, weaken and
break down the polyester fibres, create holes.
d) Affinity of dyes: disperse dyes
e) Effects of mildew/moth: it hah microbial resistance, no fungus or attack of insects, and
microorganisms.
f) Disadvantages: due to low moisture regain, makes it difficult to remove stains that contain
oil. It can build up a static charge and may be prone to pilling. It can degrade with prolonged
exposure to (UV) direct sunlight.

3. Viscous Rayon (regenerated fiber)

Cellulose base manufactured fibers also known as artificial silk, appearance like silk and behave
like cotton. Generally based on the cellulose of, bamboo, cotton lints and spruce tree.

Types of regenerated fibres:

 Viscose Rayon
 Copra ammonium
 Rayon, Acetate Rayon

3.1 Viscose rayon

Properties are like cotton; moisture regain is better than cotton 11 to 16 %. Generally, use in
medical, apparels and home furnishings.

3.2 Manufacturing of viscose rayon

Mainly 4 steps to manufacture

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -8-

Purification of cellulose material:

 Crush and remove linings (impurities) to achieve around 90% of cellulose and making paper
sheet.
Formation of soda cellulose:
 Steeping (mercerization) with 18 % caustic soda, to make soda cellulose, making it stable
and more reactive for further process. Then shredding and cutting and ageing 3 hrs to 2
days to reduce the cellulose chain (DP) in vessel.

Formation of cellulose xanthate:

 Xanthation (churning) to make soluble. Mixing "carbon disulfite" and slow rotation in a
vessel to achieve high viscosity. Then ripening 4 to 5 days to improve fibre strength,
reactivity on cellulose xanthate and maintaining viscosity of solution.

Regeneration of fibre by wet spinning:

 Preparation for spinning by mixing caustic soda, time 3 to 4 hrs. Now it's ready to
regenerate fibre.
 Preparation of coagulation bath with water and H²SO⁴, Na²SO², ZNSO⁴ and glucose. Then
showering xanthate solution by spinret, now the fibre regenerated.
 Wash and dry.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 -9-

Fibres to Yarn (Spinning)

Introduction
Textile spinning is the process of converting fibers into yarn by drawing out and twisting fibers
together to give them strength, uniformity, and continuity. Spinning is a key stage in textile
manufacturing and can be applied to natural fibers (cotton, wool) and man-made fibers (polyester,
viscose). The process begins with selecting suitable fibers based on the required yarn properties
such as strength, fineness, and end use.

1. Blow Room
This is the first mechanical stage in (Opening and Cleaning) spinning.

Objectives:
 Open compressed fiber bales
 Remove impurities (dust, seed particles, trash)
 Mix fibers uniformly
Machines used:
 Bale opener
 Blender
 Cleaner
 Hopper feeder
Output:
 A uniform lap or loose fiber mass

2. Carding
Carding converts the loose fibers into a thin web and then into a sliver.

Functions:
 Further cleaning of fibers
 Individualization and parallelization of fibers, removal of short fibers and neps
Machine:
 Carding machine
 Output:
 Card sliver

3. Combing
Combing improves yarn quality by removing short fibers and aligning long fibers. (Optional – for
fine and high-quality yarns)

Functions:
 Removal of short fibers (noils)
 Improved fiber parallelism
 Increased yarn strength and smoothness

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 10 -

Machine:
 Combing machine
Output:
 Combed sliver

4. Drawing
Drawing (Draw Frame) improves fiber alignment and sliver uniformity.

Functions:
 Combine several slivers into one
 Improve evenness,
 Straighten and parallelize fibers
Machine:
 Draw frame
Output:
 Drawn sliver

5. Roving
Roving (Speed Frame) is a preparatory step before spinning.

Functions:
 Reduce sliver thickness
 Insert a small amount of twist
 Prepare material for spinning
Machine:
 Roving (speed) frame
Output:
 Roving (bobbin)

6. Spinning
This is the main stage where yarn is formed by drafting and twisting.

Objectives:
 Reduce roving to final yarn count
 Insert required twist
 Wind yarn onto packages
Spinning systems:
 Ring spinning
 Rotor (open-end) spinning
 Air-jet spinning
 Compact spinning
Output:
 Yarn

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 11 -

7. Winding
Yarn from spinning is wound into suitable packages.

Functions:
 Remove faults and weak places
 Produce uniform packages, prepare yarn for further processing
Machine:
 Winding machine

8. Doubling
Doubling and Twisting is optional, used when stronger or special yarns are required.

Functions:
 Combine two or more yarns
 Improve strength, balance, and appearance
Machine:
 Twisting machine

Note: - Yarn strength depends on staple length and yarn twist.

 Lower twist → softer yarn
 Higher twist → stronger yarn

Finally yarn quality is tested (count, strength, evenness, twist). Accepted yarn is packed for
weaving, knitting, or sale.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 12 -

Yarn to Fabric (Knitting, Weaving)

Introduction
Fabric is made in two ways, knitting and weaving.

1. Knitting
Knitting is a fabric formation process in which yarns are converted into fabric by interloping, rather
than interlacing (weaving) or bonding. The structure is flexible, elastic, and comfortable.
Generally, 2 types of knitting, Weft Knitting and Warp Knitting

1.1 Weft knitting

Yarn runs horizontally, fabric is formed row by row, can be knitted by hand or machine.

Common weft knit structures:

 Plain (Single Jersey): Light, stretchy, used for T-shirts
 Rib: Vertical ribs, high elasticity, used for cuffs, collars
 Interlock: Double knit structure, smooth and stable
 Purl: Same appearance on both sides

1.2 Warp knitting

Yarn runs vertically, each needle has its own yarn, produced only on machines

Common warp knit structures:

 Tricot: Fine, smooth, used in lingerie
 Raschel: Open, decorative, used in lace, nets, curtains

1.3 Knitting machines

 Weft knitting machines
 Circular knitting machine
 Flat knitting machine
 Warp knitting machines
 Raschel machine

Yarn requirements for knitting:

High flexibility, good strength, smooth surface

Properties of knitted fabrics:

High elasticity, good air permeability, soft handle, wrinkle resistant, lower dimensional stability than
woven fabrics.

End uses of knitted fabrics:

T-shirts, Sportswear, Hosiery, Underwear, Sweaters, Medical textiles.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 13 -

2. Weaving
Weaving is a fundamental textile manufacturing process in which two sets of yarns warp
(lengthwise) and weft (crosswise) are interlaced at right angles to produce woven fabric.

Basic elements of weaving:

 Warp yarns: Yarns held under tension in the length direction of the fabric
 Weft yarns: Yarns inserted across the width of the fabric
 Selvage: Finished edges of the fabric that prevent fraying

2.1 Preparatory processes (before weaving)

1. Warping: Arranging warp yarns parallel on a warp beam.

2. Sizing: Applying size (starch/PVA) to warp yarns to improve strength and abrasion resistance.
3. Drawing-in & Denting: Passing warp yarns through healed eyes and reed dents.
4. Tying-in: Knotting new warp yarns to old ones (for continuous production).

2.2 Weaving process

Primary motions of weaving:

 Shedding: Separation of warp yarns to form a shed
 Picking: Insertion of weft yarn through the shed
 Beating-up: Pushing the inserted weft into the fabric fell
Secondary motions:
 Let-off: Controlled release of warp yarn from the beam
 Take-up: Winding of woven fabric onto the cloth roller

2.3 Types of Looms

Traditional looms:
 Hand loom
 Power loom
Modern Looms:
 Shuttle loom
 Projectile loom
 Rapier loom
 Air-jet loom
 Water-jet loom

3. Weave structures

1. Plain weave: Simple over–under pattern (e.g., cotton shirting)

2. Twill weave: Diagonal pattern (e.g., denim)
3. Satin weave: Smooth surface with long floats

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 14 -

4. Special weaves: Dobby, Jacquard, Leno, Pile

Finally, fabric quality is inspected (mending and grading). Accepted fabric is bundled and sent for
processing, or sale.

4. Fabric grading
In the weaving process, some defects occur during the making of cloth. Usually, there is a bundle
of 100 meters which is not 100% free from defects. Most common defects like, oil spot, holes, rust,
color variation, hairiness, salvage damage, Reed marks, starting marks, color yarn, smash, slub,
tight/loose yarn, miss pick, double pick, thick/thin yarn and other damages of fabrics, etc.
For that the grading of fabric required to determine the acceptance level. Most commonly the 4-
point system, evaluates fabric quality by assigning penalty points.

4-point system.
Size of defects (up to) Penalty points
3" 1
6" 2
9" 3
over 9" 4
Holes
1" 2
over 1" 4
Defects are based on their size, with larger defects receives more points. The total points are
calculated per 100 square yards of fabric; if the total exceeds an agreed-upon acceptance level,
the fabric is rejected. For example, exceeding 40 points per 100 square yards is often considered a
second.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 15 -

Parameters of Fabric
1. Yarn count (cotton)
Yarn count is a numerical system used to express the fineness or coarseness of cotton yarn. In
cotton textiles, indirect yarn count systems are most commonly used.

1.1 English cotton count (Ne)

This is the most widely used yarn count system for cotton.

Definition:
Ne = Number of 840-yard hanks that weigh 1 pound.
Formula:
Ne = Length (yards)
840 x Weight (lb)
Interpretation:
 Higher Ne → Finer yarn
 Lower Ne → Coarser yarn
Examples:
 Ne 10 → Coarse yarn (denim, canvas)
 Ne 20–30 → Medium yarn (shirtings)
 Ne 40–60 → Fine yarn (poplin, voile)
 Ne 80–120 → Very fine yarn (lawn, cambric)

1.2 Easiest way of English Count (Ne)

120-yard x 0.54 = 64.8 > divided by weight of 120-yard yarn in grams.
Yarn count from fabric:
Take 36 threads from 12x12 fabric, wrap or weft, weight and multiply with 10. Now it comes the
weight of 120 yards. Divide with 64.8. This is the yarn count.
Conversion with denier:
Denier = 5314.5
Ne
(Denier is used for polyester and silk (in filament fibres))

1.3 Metric count (Nm)

Sometimes used alongside Ne.

Definition:
Number of meters per gram.
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 16 -

Formula:
Nm = Length (m)
Weight (g)
Relationship with Ne:
Nm = 1.693 x Ne

1.4 Tex system (direct system)

Used for international comparison.

Definition:
 Tex = Weight in grams of 1000 meters of yarn
Relationship with Ne:
Tex = 590.5
Ne
Example:
 Ne 20 = 29.5 tex
 Ne 40 = 14.8 tex

2. Construction
Weaving of fabrics with number of threads per square inch in warp or weft.
warp (Ends) X weft (Piks).
Different types of weaving patterns can be made by the combination of warp and weft threads,
determining the strength, appearance, comfort, durability, and end use of the textile.

2.1 Common weaves

Plain weave:
 Simple 1×1 interlacing (strong, firm)
 Examples: Cotton shirting, muslin
Twill weave:
 Diagonal lines (stronger and flexible)
 Examples: Denim, drill
Satin weave:
 Long floats (smooth and lustrous)
 Examples: Satin, silk fabric
 (If needed can add more texture with slub yarn)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 17 -

2.2 Different weaves example

Writing of count/construction:
 Example: 70x90/80x90
 Definition: count / construction
Warp(ends) x weft(picks) / Warp(ends) x weft(picks)
70 x 90 / 80 x 90

3. GSM
GSM is a standard unit used in textiles to express the weight of fabric. It indicates how many
grams one square meter of fabric weighs and helps identify the thickness.

Definition:
GSM = Weight (grams) of 1 square meter of fabric
Formula:
GSM = Weight of sample (g)
Area of sample (m²)
Example:
If a fabric sample of 10 cm × 10 cm weighs 2.5 g:
 Area = 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 m²
 GSM = 2.5 / 0.01 = 250 GSM

3.1 GSM cutter method

The standard procedure is gsm cutter, which is circular in shape having a diameter of 11.2 cm.

Procedure:
 Cutting the fabric with circular cutter
 Weigh sample in grams
 Multiply weight by 100

Example:
 2.1 g × 100 = 210 GSM

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 18 -

3.2 GSM range and fabric uses

GSM Range Fabric Type Common Uses

30–80 Very light Chiffon, voile, linings

80–120 Light Shirts, summer wear
120–180 Medium T-shirts, bedsheets
180–250 Heavy Hoodies, denim
250–400+ Very heavy Upholstery, towels

GSM vs fabric type:

 Woven fabrics: Lower GSM for same thickness
 Knitted fabrics: Higher GSM due to loops
 Denim: 250–350 GSM
 Single jersey knit: 140–180 GSM
 Rib & interlock: 180–260 GSM

4. Blend
Blending in textiles is the process of combining two or more different fibres to produce a yarn or
fabric with improved or desired properties that cannot be achieved by a single fibre alone.

Objectives of fibre blending:

 Improve strength and durability
 Enhance comfort and appearance
 Reduce cost of production
 Improve spinnability
 Combine functional properties of different fibres
 Achieve special performance (easy care, wrinkle resistance, moisture control

4.1 Stages of blending

Fibre blending:
 Done at blow room, fibres mixed in loose form. Most common and effective method
Sliver blending:
 Blending during drawing. Improves uniformity
Roving blending:
 Limited blending. Used when fine control is needed
Yarn blending:
 Different yarns twisted together, less uniform than fibre blending
Fabric blending:
 Different yarns used in warp and weft. Example: Cotton warp + Polyester weft

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 19 -

4.2 Common types of fibre blends

Natural–Natural blends:
 Cotton / Linen
 Wool / Silk
 Advantages: Better comfort, improved texture
Natural–Synthetic blends:
 Cotton / Polyester (PC)
 Wool / Acrylic
 Cotton / Nylon
 Advantages: Strength, easy care, reduced shrinkage, lower cost
Synthetic–Synthetic blends:
 Polyester / Nylon
 Polyester / Acrylic
 Advantages: High durability, special performance fabrics

4.5 Blend ratio examples

 65/35 Polyester/Cotton
 80/20 Wool/Nylon
 50/50 Cotton/Polyester

5. Physical test
Fabric physical testing evaluates the mechanical and dimensional behaviour of fabric without
changing its chemical structure. Tests generally performed with ISO standard.

General purpose of testing:

 Ensure fabric meets buyer specifications
 Compare fabric quality between suppliers
 Predict end-use performance
 Control production consistency
 Reduce claims & rejections
 Fabric classification

5.1 Tear strength (ISO 13937-1)

To assess the tear strength of the fabrics.

Apparatus:
 Digital tear tester
Specimen:
 For weft tear strength:
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 20 -

 58 mm in warp direction
 80 mm in weft direction
For warp tear strength:
 58 mm in weft direction
 80 mm in warp direction

Procedure:
1. Clamp a test specimen in the jaws so that 80 mm side of specimen with trimmed edge is parallel
to the base and 58 mm side of the specimen is at right angles to the base.
2. Mark the cut in the specimen.
3. Set the pointer to the starting point.
4. Depress the pendulum stop to release the pendulum, allow the pendulum to sewing a full cycle
before releasing stop.
5. Read off and record the position of the pointer on the scale.

Result:
Result is taken and convert it to grams.

5.2 Tensile strength (ISO 13934-2)

To assess the tensile strength of woven fabric.

Apparatus:
 Titan strength tester

Procedure:
1. Initial separation between the top and bottom jaw is 200 mm.
2. Ensure the testing equipment is set up exactly as described and calibrated according to the
manufacturing instruction.
3. Movement started when mount a specimen centrally and vertically in the jaw ensuring the jaw
have no tension applied.
4. Set the machine in motion and measure the load required to break the specimen.

Result:
 Report the load in Ibs

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 21 -

5.3 Dimensional stability (ISO 6330, 5770)

To assess the dimensional stability that means shrinkage.

Apparatus:
 Washing machine
 Sewing machine
Specimen
Cutting length:
 Weft= 105 cm
 Warp= 60 cm
Measuring length:
 Weft= 100 cm
 Warp= 50 cm

Procedure:
1. At first sample is cut according to the specimen.
2. Than the measuring length is marked.
3. Then the sample is sewed around the 4 side.
4. Then it goes to the washing machine for hot water wash.
5. Then dried.
6. Then again measured to get the shrinkage %.

5.4 Pilling resistance (ISO 12945)

Surface appearance after wear

Apparatus:
 Martindale or ICI Pilling Box
Method:
 Rub fabric cycles
 Compare with standard photographs
 Grade from 1 (worst) to 5 (best)

5.5 Abrasion resistance (ISO 12947)

The test determines the resistance of textile fabrics to abrasion, and how well a fabric withstands
wear caused by rubbing during use.

Principle of the Test:

A circular fabric specimen is rubbed against a standard abrasive fabric (usually wool) in a
Lissajous motion. The test continues for a specified number of rub cycles. Abrasion resistance is
assessed by, appearance change, yarn breakage, hole formation.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 22 -

Apparatus:
 Martindale Abrasion Tester
Specimen:
 Circular shape minimum 3 to 6
 Diameter: Fabric specimen: Ø 38 mm Abradant fabric: Ø 140 mm

Procedure:
1. Mount the abradant fabric and felt on the abrasion table.
2. Place the fabric specimen in the specimen holder.
3. Apply the specified load.
4. Start the machine to perform rubbing in Lissajous motion.
5. Stop at predetermined intervals (e.g. 5,000 or 10,000 rubs).
6. Inspect the specimen for yarn breakage, hole formation, severe appearance change.
7. Continue until end-point is reached or specified cycles are completed.
8. Assessment, depending on the standard or buyer requirement.

Example:
 Abrasion resistance: 25,000 rubs (ISO 12947-2, 12 kPa)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 23 -

Different Types of Fabrics

Historically it is a known fact in textile sector that making fabric is more of an art than a science.
Defining a fabric is crucial, no single factor defines a fabric; it is identified by a set of characteristics
like, combining technical construction details with commercial and traditional naming.

1. Type definition
Generally, the fabric defined/identified by the following basis,

1.1 Regional or culture tradition

Traditional names do not always describe exact construction, usually originate from region, culture,
handloom practice, or historical usage.

Example:
 Ajrak, Khaddi, Muslin, Banarasi, Tartan (Scottish), Khudder, Batik, Jamdani, etc.

1.2 Market commercial naming

Market terms are commercial names used for selling and identification, often mixing construction,
use, and appearance. Market names may vary by country and brand.

Example by appearance/brand:
 Lawn, Poplin, Voile, Flannel, Satin, Fleece, Cambric, Linin, Velvet, Tevira, Pushmina, etc.
Example by fiber blend:
 Poly-cotton, PC Twill, Viscose Crepe, etc.

1.3 Technical measured parameters

A technical fabric definition uses measurable parameters.

Fiber parameters:
 Fiber type (cotton, polyester, wool), Staple/filament, Fiber fineness (denier, micronaire)
Yarn parameters:
 Yarn count, Yarn type, Twist, Ply (example: 30 Ne ring-spun single yarn)
Fabric construction parameters:
 Weave/knit, Plain/twill/satin/jersey, Warp density, Weft density, Loop length.
Surface & finish parameters:
 Bleached, Dyed, Printed, Mercerized, Brushed, Sanforised, Coated, etc.

1.4 End-use apparel, home, industrial

Example:
 Shirting, Suiting, Denim, Upholstery, Lining

A combined example:
 “100% cotton, 20×20 Ne, plain weave, 60×60, 120 GSM poplin fabric/shirting fabric”

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 24 -

2. Different fabrics
A high range and verities are available in market, here are few of them to understand the concept.

2.1 Lawn
Lawn is a lightweight, plain-woven fabric made from fine combed yarns, traditionally 100% cotton,
though modern lawns may include blended yarns. Branded summer suits, shirting lawn for export.

 Weave: Plain weave (around 80 EPIxPPI)

 Yarn count: Typically, 70s to100s Ne (cotton)
 GSM: 65 to 90
 Finish: Calendered for smoothness

2.2 Swiss Lawn

Swiss lawn is a high-quality lawn fabric, made from very fine, long-staple cotton yarns, woven
under controlled conditions for exceptional uniformity and softness. Traditionally associated with
Swiss textile standards, known in markets as luxury lawn, lighter and smoother than ordinary lawn.

 Weave: Plain weave (around 80 to 100 EPIxPPI)

 Yarn count: 80s to 120s Ne
 GSM: 55 to 75
 Finish: Mercerized, sometimes enzyme treated

2.3 Voile
Voile is a semi-transparent, plain-woven fabric, produced using high-twist fine yarns, giving it a
crisp and slightly sheer structure. used for scarves, dupattas, curtains, and light summer garments.

 Fiber: Cotton, polyester, viscose, or blends

 Yarn count: varies 60s to 100s for single yarn 120s/2 to 200s/2 for plied yarn
 Construction can be 80x80 to 92x80
 GSM: 50 to 80
 Finish: Soft finish

2.4 Cambric
Cambric is a closely woven plain-weave fabric, made from fine yarns. Traditionally known as a
firm, polished cotton fabric, cambric is considered stronger and heavier than lawn but finer than
poplin, used shirts, blouses, linings and home textiles.

 Fiber: Cotton or cotton blends

 Count/Construction: 60x60 / 104 x82 40x40 / 140x70
 GSM: 90 to 140
 Structure: Dense and firm
 Finish: Calendered to give a smooth, slightly glossy surface.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 25 -

2.5 Muslin
It is a plain-woven cotton fabric, made from medium to fine yarns, depending on end use.
Traditionally, was a handwoven cotton fabric, in the Indian subcontinent, known for its softness.

 Yarn count: 20s–60s Ne

 GSM: 70 to120
 Finish: Usually unbleached or lightly finished

2.6 Teravira
Teravira is a polyester or polyester-rich fabric, often 100% polyester or polyester–viscose blend,
made in plain or twill weave and engineered for durability and crease resistance. In South Asian
markets, Teravira is a trade name, not a strict fabric class, commonly used to describe wash-and-
wear synthetic fabrics used for men’s shalwar kameez and uniforms.

 Fiber: Polyester / P/V

 GSM: ~90–150
 Properties: Low shrinkage, wrinkle resistant

2.7 Cotton poplin

Sold as “Poplin Shirting” in market; buyers focus mainly on hand feel, GSM, shrinkage, and color
fastness, not weave name. Men’s & women’s shirts.

 Fiber: 100% Cotton

 Yarn Count: 40 × 40 Ne
 Weave: Plain, 110 × 90 (EPI × PPI)
 GSM: 115–120
 Finish: Mercerized, Sanforized

2.8 Denim fabric

Used in Bottom garments. Sold by GSM and oz/yd² (e.g., 12 oz denim). Fashion brands specify
stretch %, shade, and abrasion [Link] Origin: France.

 Fiber: 100% Cotton / Cotton–Elastane

 Yarn: Warp yarn, 7 Ne (ring dyed indigo) Weft yarn, 10 Ne
 Weave: 3/1 Right Hand Twill, construction 60 × 42
 GSM: 340–380
 Finish: Sanforized / Resin
 Width: 62–68"

2.9 Poly-cotton twill

Used for workwear, school uniforms, on buyers demand high tear strength and low shrinkage more
than softness.

 Fiber: 65% Polyester / 35% Cotton

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 26 -

 Yarn Count: 20 × 16 Ne
 Weave: 2/1 Twill, construction 108 × 56
 GSM: 240–260
 Finish: Easy-care, wrinkle resistant

2.10 Single jersey

Knited fabric used in T-Shirt Industry. Knitted on circular knitting machin

 Fiber: 100% Cotton / Cotton–Poly

 Yarn: 26 Ne carded or combed
 Structure: Single Jersey Knit
 GSM: 160–180
 Loop Length: 2.7–2.9 mm
 Finish: Bio-polished, compacted

2.11 Terry towel

Towel Fabric, used in Home Textile. Sold by GSM and absorbency (hotel towels: 500+ GSM)

 Fiber: 100% Cotton

 Ground Warp: 20 Ne
 Pile Warp: 16 Ne
 Weft: 16 Ne
 Construction: 112 × 68
 GSM: 450–600
 Finish: Softening, pre-shrunk

Ajrak
Traditional, Sindh, Pakistan craft. Handmade versions command higher prices; export buyers
require eco-dye certification.

Export version specification:

 Fiber: 100% Cotton
 Yarn: 20 Ne
 Weave: Plain
 GSM: 120–140
 Printing: Natural dyes, resist printing
 Finish: Washed, soft hand

Summery

It’s all about choice and needs as affordability and availability for seasons and occasions.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 27 -

Chapter (2

PRE-TREATMENT

 Singeing
Desizing

Scouring

Bleaching

Mercerizing

Stentering

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 28 -

Singeing
Introduction/Purpose
Singeing is a mechanical–thermal pre-treatment process in textile processing in which protruding
surface fibers (hairiness) from yarns or fabrics are removed by controlled burning. The objective is
to produce a clean, smooth fabric surface that improves appearance, handle, and performance in
subsequent wet processing operations, and further for better print and dye quality. It is optional,
but common and carried out before desizing.

Materials suitable for singeing:

Singeing is mainly applied to cellulosic and blended textiles.

Material Suitability
Cotton Excellent
Cotton blends (CVC, PC) Very good
Linen Good
Viscose Controlled conditions required
Wool Not singed (risk of damage)
Synthetic fibers Generally not singed (they melt rather than burn)

1. Types of singeing
Two types of singeing carried out in industry, yarn singeing and fabric singeing. Yarn singeing
applied to warp yarns before weaving to reduces hairiness in yarn and improves weaving
efficiency.
Not common, but carried out in fine counts and high-quality fabrics.

1.1 Fabric singeing

Most common industrial practice, applied to grey fabric. Can be done on both sides, face side only
(for printed fabrics). Mainly 3 Types of machines used for fabric singeing.

1.1.1 Hot plate singing machine

This is old method; fabric passes over red-hot copper plates touching hot plate at 100 to 140
m/min.
Disadvantage: Risk of scorching due to heat variation or wet fabrics.

1.1.2 Rotary singeing machine

Passing the fabric through hot and opposite direction rotating rollers.
Common use on velvet and pile fabrics like towels.

1.1.3 Gas singeing machine

Most widely used type of machine.

Machin: Osthoff, Germany (is common)

 Fabric guide rollers
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 29 -

 Gas burners (natural gas or LPG)

 Flame control system
 Exhaust hood
 Brushing and quenching units

Parameters:
No of burners. 2 both sides
Burner hight. 16 inches
Speed. varies as fabrics, 60 to 160 m/min

Controlling points:
Flam direction, intensity, width, temperature and position
Fabric speed Controls exposure time
Fabric tension prevents distortion
Slight moisture improves control

Working:
 Brushing to raise surface fibers
 Fabric passes at high speed over flame
 Surface hairs burn instantly
 Fabric is immediately quenched with water to stop combustion
 Washing (removal of ash)
 Drying or direct feed to desizing

2. Quality evaluation of singeing:

 Visual inspection
 Hand feel comparison
 Print clarity test
 Pilling tendency assessment

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 30 -

Desizing
Introduction/Purpose
Desizing is the first wet chemical pre-treatment process applied to woven textile fabrics, especially
cotton and cotton-blended fabrics. During weaving, size materials are applied to warp yarns to
improve strength, abrasion resistance, and weaving efficiency. However, these size materials must
be completely or substantially removed before further wet processing such as scouring, bleaching,
dyeing, or printing. Otherwise, they cause: poor absorbency, uneven dyeing/printing, patchy
bleaching, fabric stiffness.
The desizing process removes these sizing agents without damaging the fiber structure, thereby
improving fabric absorbency, wettability, and processing performance.

Sizing materials used in weaving:

 Natural Sizes: Starch (maize, rice, wheat, potato), Modified starch, Gelatine
 Synthetic Sizes: Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), Polyacrylates, Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
 Blended Sizes: Starch and synthetic polymers to balance strength, [Link] cost

The type of size used determines the desizing method.

Factors affecting selection of desizing recipe:

 Type of size (starch, PVA, CMC, acrylic)
 Fiber content (cotton, polyester/cotton, viscose)
 Fabric construction & GSM
 Processing method (pad-batch, pad-steam, kier boiling)
 Machinery available
 Environmental regulations

1. Types of desizing processes

Mainly two types of process can be carried out: Hydrolyse Desizing and Oxidative Desizing

1.1 Hydrolyse desizing

It is most common and furthermore 3 types of methods generally used by hydrolysing the size
materials.

1.1.1 Rot steeping desizing

This is old method to remove starch, cheap method no chemicals used.

Suitable for:
 Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),
 Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 31 -

 Some modified starches

Process conditions:
 Temperature: 60–90°C
 pH: Neutral
 Mechanical action enhances removal

Procedure:
Dipping fabric in hot water
Squeeze the fabric
Resting the fabric for 24 hrs in the tank
Naturally microorganisms eat starch
Washing (mechanical action enhances removal)

Disadvantage:
It takes more time, more water and more space needed.
Microorganisms can harm cellulose fibres and leave stains on fabric etc.

1.1.2 Acid desizing

This hydrolysis the coating and dissolve in water. For PVA and Starches Not suitable for Synthetic.

Typical acid desizing recipe:

Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) 2 – 5 g/L
Wetting agent 0.5 – 1.0 g/L
Water Balance
Temperature Room temp to 40°C
Time 15 – 30 minutes

Disadvantage:
Excess acid can harm cellulose fibre like cotton, fabric tendering, corrosion of machinery.

1.1.3 Enzyme desizing

This is more catalyst and commonly used method nowadays. Enzymes like amylase and protease
remove starch and gelatine-based sizing agents from textile fibres by soaking them in enzyme
solution for a specific time and temperature. Fabrics, mainly cotton and linen, get a boost in fibre
strength after such an enzymatic desizing process. This is eco-friendly, not harmful, energy saving.

Typical recipe bach process (cotton fabric):

 Amylase enzyme 0.5 – 2.0 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5 – 1.0 g/L
 Sequestering agent 0.5 g/L
 Common salt (optional) 1 – 2 g/L
 pH 6.0 – 7.0
 Temperature 60 – 70°C
 Time 30 – 60 minutes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 32 -

Application methods:
 Pad–batch
 Pad–steam
 Jigger
 Winch

Typical recipe for singe + desize continues :

 Ultra Desizer TM (enzyme) 5kg
 Hostapol Extra Liq (wetting agent) 5kg
 Sirrrix 2UD (Sequestering agent) 2kg
 Water. 1000 L
 PH. 6.5
 Temperature of bath 60 c
 Speed 60 to 100 m/mnt

Precaution:
Temperature must be controlled around 60 c and need a bit acidic environment, because alkaline
is not good for enzymes function. After application, the fabric batcher wrapped with polythene,
rotation and conditioning as required, 4 to 12 hrs, and then go to wash on CBR for combined
process (washing, scouring, bleaching) or wash separately. There are other “only” desizing
machines, they also age and wash on same machine.

1.2 Other types of desizing

1.2.1 Oxidative desizing

Oxidation breaks down starch molecules, when bleaching is combined. Some disadvantages, fiber
strength loss, difficult control, high chemical consumption.

Typical recipe:
 Hydrogen peroxide (35%) 2 – 5 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 1 – 2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5 g/L
 Stabilizer 0.5 – 1.0 g/L
 Temperature 80 – 90°C
 Time 30 – 60 minutes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 33 -

1.2.2 Solvent desizing

Used for synthetic sizes like PVA, acrylics. PVA dissolves in hot water and is removed by washing.

Typical recipe:
 Hot water (90–95°C)
 Detergent 1 – 2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5 g/L
 Time 20 – 30 minutes

1.2.3 Combined Desizing

Combined with scouring, widely used in continuous processing. Saves time, water, energy.

Typical recipe (cotton fabric):

 Amylase enzyme 0.5 – 1.0 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 2 – 4 g/L
 Detergent 1 – 2 g/L
 Sequestering agent 0.5 g/L
 Temperature 90 – 100°C
 Time 45 – 60 minutes

2. Testing of desizing efficiency:

 TEGEWA iodine test

 Absorbency test
 Drop test
 Fabric handle assessment

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 34 -

Scouring

Introduction/ Purpose
Scouring is a wet textile pre-treatment process carried out to remove natural, added, and
processing impurities from textile materials, especially cotton and cotton-rich fabrics. The primary
aim of scouring is to iimprove hydrophilicity and absorbency, eensure uniform dye uptake,
eenhance fabric whiteness, prepare the textile for efficient bleaching.
This process is designed to remove waxes and fats, pectins, proteins, mineral salts, residual size
materials, oils and lubricants, dirt and dust.

Materials requiring scouring:

 Cotton fibers and fabrics
 Cotton blends (cotton/polyester)
 Linen (flax)
 Jute and other cellulosic fibers

Synthetic fibers require mild scouring to remove oils and spin finishes.

Impurities (%) present in cotton:

 Cellulose 88–96
 Waxes & fats 0.4–1.0
 Pectins 0.7–1.2
 Proteins 0.5–1.5
 Mineral matter 0.7–1.6

These impurities are hydrophobic, making untreated cotton unsuitable for wet processing.

1. Process and types of scouring

Scouring can be caried out by 2 types of process, batch and continues process. The most common
type of scouring is based on alkaline treatment, usually with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), could call it
“Caustic boiling scouring”.

1.1 Caustic boiling scouring

Chemicals are used to break down and remove impurities through several mechanisms.

Principle action:
 Saponification- Converts fatty acids into water-soluble soaps
 Emulsification- Forms suspensions of non-saponifiable impurities
 Solubilization- Dissolves other substances like pectin and proteins into soluble salts
 Detergency- for dirt, dust, china clay

The conventional process carried out on Kier (batch) and continues on Pad-Steam, J-box and
CBR, but can be also on winch, Jigger, soft flow and Jet machines.
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 35 -

Chemicals used:
 Caustic soda (NaOH) – main scouring agent
 Wetting agents – to improve penetration by reducing surface tension of water
 Detergents – emulsify impurities
 Sequestering agents – control water hardness by deactivating metal ions
 Stabilizers – protect fiber and equipment (if required)
 Anti-foaming agents (if required)

1.1.1 Kier boiler process

Batch process, used for cotton fabrics and yarn high alkali concentration, long processing time

Typical industrial recipes:

 NaOH (98%) 3–6 g/L
 Detergent 1–2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Sequestering agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Liquor ratio 1:20
 Temperature 95–100°C
 Time 60–120 min
 Pressure 1–2 bar

1.1.2 Continuous

Typical recipe for CBR/J-box:

 NaOH 22 to 28 gpl
 Soap (wetting agent) 2 to 4 gpl
 Dwell time 18 to 20 min
 Padder pressure 2 to 3 bars
 Speed 50 to 60 m/min
 Temperature 100 c

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 36 -

1.1.3 Semi Continuous

Typical Pad-steam recipe:

 NaOH 20–40 g/L
 Detergent 2–4 g/L
 Wetting agent 1–2 g/L
 Stabilizer 1 g/L
 Pick-up 70–80%
 Steaming 100–102°C
 Time 3–10 min

Typical recipe polyester/cotton blend (batch)

 NaOH 1–2 g/L
 Non-ionic detergent 2 g/L
 Sequestering agent 1 g/L
 Temperature 80–90°C
 Time 30–45 min

1.2 Enzymatic (bio-scouring)

Uses pectinase enzymes. Eco-friendly alternative, operates under mild conditions, less fiber
damage, lower weight loss, reduced effluent load

Typical recipe (cotton):

 Pectinase enzyme 0.5–2% owf
 Wetting agent 0.5 g/L
 Buffer pH 6–8
 Temperature 50–60°C
 Time 45–60 min
 Liquor ratio 1:10–15

2. Quality Ccontrol tests after scouring

 Drop absorbency test
 Sinking time test
 Weight loss measurement
 pH check
 Visual cleanliness

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 37 -

Bleaching
Introduction/Objectives
Bleaching is a chemical process to remove natural coloring matter and impurities from fibers,
making the fabric white, clean, and absorbent. The process improves the brightness, uniformity,
and dyeability of textiles and is essential when producing white fabrics, pastel shades, and light
colors.
Bleaching is typically carried out after desizing and scouring, and before dyeing, printing, or
finishing.

Natural color and iimpurities in fibers:

 Cotton: Waxes, Pectins, Proteins, Natural pigments (yellowish/brown tint)
 Wool: Natural grease (lanolin), Pigments, Residual vegetable matter
 Silk: Sericin, natural pigments
 Synthetic Fibers: Generally, do not require bleaching, except for cleaning or shade
correction

Fibers commonly bleached:

 Cotton: Essential
 Linen: Essential
 Jute: Controlled bleaching
 Wool: Mild bleaching only
 Silk: Very mild bleaching
 Polyester: Usually not bleached
 Blended fabrics: Fiber-specific treatment

1. Classification
Bleaching processes are classified based on bleaching agents. Theory of Bleaching works by
oxidizing or reducing colored impurities into colorless or soluble compounds.

Oxidative bleaching:
(Permanent)
 Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)
 Sodium hypochlorite
 Sodium chlorite

Reductive bleaching:
(Not permanent)
 Sodium hydrosulfite (hydros)
 Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate
 Sulfur dioxide

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 38 -

1.1 Hydrogen peroxide (H²O²)

The most widely used agent for cotton, blends, and other natural fibres due to its effectiveness.
Environmentally safer, produces high whiteness, no chlorine damage, minimal fiber degradation
when controlled, suitable for continuous and batch processes. Sensitive to metal ions (need care).

1.1.1 Batch methods

Exhaust / Kier / Jigger

Typical recipe (cotton fabric):

 Hydrogen peroxide (35%) 3–6 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 1–2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Sequestering agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Stabilizer 0.5–1 g/L
 Temperature 95–100°C
 Time 45–90 minutes
 pH 10.5–11.5

1.1.2 Continuous methods

Pad-steam / J-Box

Typical recipe (cotton fabric):

 Hydrogen peroxide 30–50 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 8–12 g/L
 Stabilizer 2–5 g/L
 Wetting agent 1–2 g/L
 Sequestering agent 1–2 g/L
 Steaming 102–105°C
 Dwell time 5–10 minutes

Continues bleaching rang (CBR), following scouring

Typical recipe (cotton fabric):

 Hydrogen peroxide 12 to 16 gpl
 Wetting agent. 2 to 5 gpl
 Stabilizer. (sodium silicate) 6 to 8 gpl
 NaOH. 12 to 16 gpl
 Dwell/bed time. 18 to 20 min
 Speed. 50 to 60

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 39 -

1.1.3 Mild oxidation

Wool bleaching:
 Hydrogen peroxide 1–2 g/L
 Ammonia or sodium silicate pH control
 Temperature 50–60°C
 Time 45–60 minutes

Silk bleaching:
 Hydrogen peroxide 0.5–1 g/L
 Mild buffer pH 8–9
 Temperature 40–50°C
 Time 30–45 minutes

1.2 Sodium hypochlorite

Strong oxidizing agent, fast bleaching action risk of fiber damage, produces chlorinated waste by
formation of toxic chlorinated compounds, yellowing on storage, needs after treatment.

Typical recipe:
 Sodium hypochlorite 1–3 g/L (available chlorine)
 Temperature 30–40°C
 Time 30–60 minutes
 pH 10–11

Mandatory after-treatment:
Sodium bisulphite or hydrogen peroxide used to remove residual chlorine.

1.3 Sodium chlorite bleaching

Used for Cotton, Linen, blends, high whiteness requirement. Sodium chlorite releases chlorine
dioxide (ClO₂) in acidic medium, which bleaches without severe fiber damage.

Typical recipe:
 Sodium chlorite 3–5 g/L
 Acetic acid for pH 3.5–4
 Temperature 90–95°C
 Time 60–90 minutes
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 40 -

1.4 Reductive bleaching

Reducing agents remove color by reducing chromophores.

Sodium hydrosulphite (hydros)

Often used for synthetic fibres.

Sodium hydrosulphite (Na2S2O4)-

Often for Wool and Silk

Most Common use of these reduction agents not bleaching.

Common use:
 Stripping after dye for correction
 Shade correction
 Removing residual tints ect.

2. Optical brightening
Applied after bleaching via padding or exhaustion

Optical brightening agents (OBAs):

 Absorb UV light
 Emit blue light
 Improve perceived whiteness

3. Bleaching defects and remedies

 Fabric damage: Excess alkali Reduce NaOH
 Uneven bleaching: Poor wetting Use proper wetting agent
 Yellowing: Residual chlorine Proper neutralization
 Pin holes: Metal contamination Use sequestering agent

4. Evaluation of bleaching quality

 Whiteness index
 Absorbency test
 Tensile strength test
 pH check
 Residual peroxide test

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 41 -

Mercerization
Introduction/Objectives
Mercerization is an important chemical finishing and pre-treatment process applied mainly to cotton
and other cellulosic textiles to improve their lustre, strength, dye affinity, dimensional stability,
surface smoothness and to improve uniformity in printing and dyeing. The treatment enhances the
fabric's resistance to mildew. The process involves treating the fabric or yarn with a strong caustic
soda (NaOH) solution under controlled conditions of tension, temperature, and time.
The process is named after John Mercer, who discovered it in 1844. However, the modern
mercerization process with tension control was developed later to achieve the desired luster and
dimensional stability.

Fibers suitable for mercerization:

 Cotton fibers (most common)
 Linen (flax) – to a limited extent
 Viscose and modal – special controlled mercerization
 Cotton-rich blends (with caution)

Synthetic fibers cannot be mercerized because they do not react with caustic soda in the same
way as cellulose.

How it works:
Cotton fabric or yarn is immersed in a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, the fabric is kept
under tension to prevent it from shrinking. The caustic soda causes the cellulose fibres to swell
and change their crystalline structure, resulting in a more rounded and smoother fibre shape.

Effects of mercerization on fabric properties:

 Increased tensile strength (10–30%)
 Reduced hairiness
 Improved dimensional stability
 High silk-like lustre, enhanced brightness
 Increased dye affinity
 Improved color depth
 Reduced dye consumption Sharper print outlines
 Better performance in finishing
 Improved durability

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 42 -

1. Types of mercerization
Mainly 2 two types are being carried out, Yarn Mercerization and Fabric Mercerization.

1.1 Yarn mercerization

Applied before weaving or knitting.

 Produces high lustre and stronger yarn

 More expensive but gives premium quality fabric
 Used for high-end shirting and sewing threads

1.2 Fabric mercerization

Most commonly used method, can be done on woven or knitted fabrics, moderate lustre compared
to yarn mercerization and widely used in commercial processing

Mercerization process steps:

Preparation:
 Fabric must be desized, scoured, and bleached
 Uniform absorbency is essential

Caustic soda treatment:

 Fabric passed through 18–30% NaOH solution
 Temperature: 20–50°C
 Time: 30–60 seconds
 Fabric swells and shortens

Tension Application:
 Fabric held under longitudinal and/or width wise tension
 Prevents shrinkage
 Develops lustre

Washing and neutralization:

 Excess NaOH removed using hot and cold washing
 Neutralization with acetic acid or weak acid
 Final thorough rinsing

1.2.1 Machinery used in mercerization

 Chain mercerizing machine (woven fabrics)

 Chainless mercerizing machine (knits)
 Yarn mercerizing machines
 Pad–chain systems
 Caustic recovery systems

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 43 -

1.2.2 Typical recipe and machine parameters

 Caustic Soda (NaOH). 22 to 28 Be
 Acetic Acid (CH³COOH) 1 g/l (for neutralization bath)
 Temperature 30 to 50 c
 Dwell time 1 to 1.5 min
 Padder pressure. 2 to 3 bar
 Temperature of stabilizer. 80c
 Number of washing baths 8
 Temperature of washing baths 90 to 95 c
 Number of acetic baths. 1
 Maximum speed. 60 m/min
 Normally speed. 25 to 50 m/min
 Number of drying cylinders. 16
 Temperature of drying cylinder 180 to 200 c
 Number of cooling cylinder 2

1.2.3 At neutralization PH range to keep for dyes stuff application

 Reactive 6.5 to 7.5

 Vat 6.5 to 7.5
 White finish 5.5 to 6.5
 Pigment. 5.5 to 6.5

2. Lab evaluation after mercerization

 Barium activity number (BAN): This is common measure the uptake of barium hydroxide by
mercerized versus unmercerized cotton.
Full Mercerization: 150
Commercial Standards: Typically, 115 to 130.
 Lustre assessment: Evaluation is often visual or measured via variable-angle photometry or
polarized light methods.
 Dye affinity and color strength: This is measured using a spectrophotometer to find the color
strength (K/S values).

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 44 -

 Dimensional stability: The process should reduce subsequent shrinkage in the fabric.
Shrinkage is checked by washing the fabric and measuring dimensional changes.
 Tensile strength testing: Mercerization can increase tensile strength by up to 50%. This is
evaluated using a tensile tester.
 Moisture regain and absorbency: Successful mercerization increases the amorphous region
of the fiber, leading to better moisture regain and wicking. Standard tests include the
AATCC 79 for wettability.
 Residual alkali check: To ensure proper neutralization after the process, the fabric's pH is
tested. It should be neutral (pH 6–8).

3. Caustic recovery plant (CRP)

Caustic recovery systems reduce cost and pollution. During Mercerizing process, the diluted
caustic soda (weak lye) from stabilization compartment is normally drained. The plant recovers
dilute caustic soda by evaporating water.

Process steps:
 Weak lye wash liquor comes to the plant from mercerizing machine
 Pumping in to the machine
 Preheated (normal heat)
 Temperature increased up to 150-155 C)
 Separator (water and NaOH)
 Strong lye achieved
 Storing in reserve tank

The strong lye can be reused in mercerizing machine depending on quality of fabrics. Additional
lye cleaning by H2O2 is advisable.
The typical capacity of this machine is 900-1000 kg caustic/ day.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 45 -

Stentering
After mercerization it may need to width set, heat set or chemical coating (digital printing) etc.

A stenter is a multipurpose textile machine that stretches, dries, and heat-sets fabrics to give them
dimensional stability and a desired finish. (Detailed review about machine will be in chapter 9.)

Heat setting
Polyester or nylon fibres can shrink up to 7% in boiling water or in hot process, so they sometimes
need heat set, there are some other objectives.

Objectives:
Shape retention, crease resistance, improve elasticity and strength, softness, improve dye uptake.

Method:
Exposing the fabric above 30 to 50 c from "glass transition (tg)". Polyester (tg) 90c, Nylon (tg) 70 c.
The fabric treated with high temperature (dry hot air or steam) at high speed.

Polyester:
 Temperature. 180 to 220 c
 Time. 20 to 60 sec

 Nylon:
 Temperature. 160 to 200 c
 Time. 30 to 90 sec

(Speed varies with the temperature)

Coating for digital printing

Digital printing inks don't have fixing agents, so it needs to pre coat of fixing agents.

Recipe:
 Alginate 10%
 Resist Salt 1.8%
 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 5%
 Padder Pressure 2 bar
 Temperature 100 c
(Just dry, No Extra heat)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 46 -

Chapter (3

THEORY OF
DYES AND COLORS

Light

Theory of Dyes

Color Fastness

Color Models and Matching

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 47 -

Light
Visible light, or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human
eye. Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the
range of 400–700 nanometres, corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 terahertz.

We see color when light reflects off an object and enters our eyes, where three types of
specialized cells in the retina called cones detect different wavelengths of light. These cones are
sensitive to red, green, or blue light, and they send signals to the brain. The brain then processes
these signals by comparing the strength of the responses from each cone type to create the
perception of a specific color.

Object 1: A red object reflects red and absorbs other colours of white light

Object 2: A white object reflects all colours of white light equally

Object 3: An object is seen as black, if it absorbs all colours of white light

Object 4: We see leaves green, why? Think about it!

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 48 -

Theory of Dyes
Introduction / Purpose
A textile dye is a colored organic compound that has affinity for a textile fiber and is capable of
imparting permanent color when applied under suitable conditions of temperature, pH, and time.
Unlike pigments, dyes are soluble in water or application medium and penetrate into the fiber
structure. The purpose of dyeing is not only coloration but also to achieved desired shade and
depth, uniformity and levelness. Adequate color fastness to washing, light, rubbing, and
perspiration. The basic theory of textile dyes involves understanding chemical structure, dye–fiber
interaction, application methods, and performance characteristics. Selection of appropriate dye
class and controlled dyeing parameters ensures quality coloration, durability, and sustainability in
textile products.

Difference between dyes and pigments:

Aspect Dyes Pigments

Solubility soluble in water/application medium insoluble
Fiber Affinity have chemical/physical affinity no affinity
Fixation inside fiber on fiber surface
Binder Required no yes
Fastness generally higher depends on binder

1. Chemical nature of textile dyes

1.1 Chromophore
It is color giving parts or compound. A chromophore is a part of a molecule that absorbs specific
wavelengths of light from visible region (400–700 nm), causing the rest to be reflected or
transmitted, which is what we perceive as color.

Common chromophores:
–N=N– (Azo dyes)
–NO₂ (Nitro dyes)
–C=O (Carbonyl)

1.2 Auxochrome
Group of atoms attached to a chromophore that intensifies color but does not produce color on its
own. By donating lone-pair electrons, it modifies the light-absorbing properties of the chromophore,
typically causing a "bathochromic shift" (shift to longer wavelengths) and increasing color intensity.
Auxochrome also increase the molecule's solubility, which is important for dye to fiber affinity.
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 49 -

Common auxochromes:
–OH (Hydroxyl)
–NH₂ (Amino)
–SO₃H (Sulfonic acid)
–COOH (Carboxyl)

1.3 Application theory

Adsorption:
 Molecules stick to the surface of a material.
Diffusion:
 Penetration of material into the fiber.
Fixation:
 Bounding of material with fiber. Materials make 4 types bounding with fiber.
 Vander wall force (weak bond), Hydrogen bond (weak bond), Ionic bond (medium bond)
 Covalent bond (strong bond)

2. Classification of textile dyes

Classification of dyes are complex because of inter connection with each other, generally classified
in three ways.

Classification:
 Based on source
 Based on chemical structure
 Based on method of application
 Other market terms

2.1 Based on source

Based on origin and chemistry, textile dyes are broadly derived from natural resources and
manufactured (synthetic) sources.

2.1.1 Natural dyes

Obtained from renewable biological and mineral resources. They were the only dyes available
before the mid-19th century and are now regaining interest due to sustainability concerns.

Plants sours:
Plant dyes are the largest group of natural dyes:
 Rubia tinctorum: Red (roots madder)
 Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria): Blue (leaves)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 50 -

 Acacia: Brown, Black (bark oak)

 Safflower, Marigold: Yellow, Orange (flowers )
 Annatto, Pomegranate: Yellow, Brown (fruits/seeds)
Characteristics:
 Require mordants (alum, iron, copper)
 Generally lower color fastness
 Eco-friendly and biodegradable

Animal sours
Obtained from insects or marine organisms:
 Cochineal: Red
 Tyrian Purple: Purple
 Lac insect: Crimson
Characteristics:
 Excellent brightness
 Limited availability
 Expensive and labor-intensive

Mineral sours:
Derived from naturally occurring minerals:
 Ochre (Iron oxides): Yellow, Brown
 Malachite: Green
 Azurite: Blue
Characteristics:
 Poor fiber affinity
 Mainly used historically or for pigments

(Microbial sources are emerging, highly sustainable but still under industrial development.
Produced by fungi and bacteria through fermentation.)

2.1.2 Synthetic dyes

Synthetic dyes are produced by chemical synthesis, mainly from petrochemical intermediates such
as benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene. William Henry Perkin developed first synthetic dye
“Mauveine” in 1856. Synthetic dyes derived historically from Coal tar and modern petroleum-based
aromatics.
Example:
 Water soluble: Direct dyes, Basic dyes, Acid dyes, Reactive dyes
 Water in-soluble: Vat dyes, Disperse dyes, Sulphur dyes
 In-situ color form: Azo dye
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 51 -

Advantages of synthetic dyes:

 Wide color range
 High reproducibility
 Better fastness properties
 Cost-effective mass production
 Suitable for all fiber types

2.2 Based on chemical structure

Dye class Characteristic group

Azo dyes –N=N–
Anthraquinone dyes Anthraquinone nucleus
Indigoid dyes Indigo structure
Phthalocyanine dyes Macrocyclic ring
Triphenylmethane dyes Triphenyl structure
Sulfur dyes Sulfur linkages

2.3 Based on method of application

This is the most Important Industrial Classification. A few are following

Direct dyes:
Water-soluble, applied directly to cellulose fibers
 Bonding: Hydrogen bonding & Van der Waals forces, poor wash fastness
 Fibers: Cotton, viscose
 Example: Congo Red
Reactive dyes:
Contain reactive groups that form covalent bonds with fiber
 Excellent wash fastness
 Fibers: Cotton, wool, silk
 Example: Reactive Blue 19
Vat dyes:
Insoluble dyes reduced to soluble leuco form
 Re-oxidized inside fiber
 Fibers: Cotton
 Example: Indigo
Disperse dyes:
Non-ionic, low water solubility
 Applied in dispersed form

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 52 -

 Fibers: Polyester, acetate

 Example: Disperse Orange 3
Acid dyes:
Anionic dyes
 Form ionic bonds with fibers
 Fibers: Wool, silk, nylon
 Example: Acid Red 88
Basic (cationic) dyes:
Positively charged dyes
 High brightness
 Fibers: Acrylic
 Example: Basic Blue 41
Sulfur dyes:
Insoluble dyes applied after reduction
 Economical but poor light fastness
 Fibers: Cotton
 Example: Sulfur Black

2.4 Other market terms

Based on fiber affinity:

 Wool Acid, Mordant
 Silk Acid, Reactive
 Polyester Disperse
 Acrylic Basic
 Nylon Acid, Disperse

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 53 -

Color Fastness
Introduction
Color fastness means, the resistance of a dyed or printed textile material to change in color or
transfer of color to adjacent materials when exposed to various agencies during manufacturing,
storage, and end use.
In simple terms, it indicates how well a dye is fixed to the fiber and how stable it remains under
different physical, chemical, and environmental conditions.

Good color fastness directly affecting:

 Consumer satisfaction
 Garment durability
 Brand reputation
 Compliance with international standards

Dye-Fiber interaction/bonding mechanism:

 Bond type Strength Dye examples
Covalent Very strong Reactive dyes
Ionic Strong Acid & Basic dyes
Hydrogen Medium Direct dyes
Van der Waals Weak Disperse dyes
Mechanical entrapment Medium Vat & Sulfur dyes

1. Factors affecting color fastness

Several factors influence the fastness properties of textile dyes:

Nature of fiber:
 Cellulosic fibers (cotton, viscose): Moderate affinity for many dyes
 Protein fibers (wool, silk): Sensitive to heat and chemicals
 Synthetic fibers (polyester, nylon): Require disperse or acid dyes with high fixation
Type of dye:
 Reactive dyes: Excellent wash fastness
 Vat dyes: Outstanding fastness to washing and light
 Direct dyes: Poor to moderate fastness
 Disperse dyes: Good fastness on polyester
Dye–fiber bonding:
 Covalent bonds (reactive dyes): High fastness
 Ionic bonds (acid/basic dyes): Moderate fastness
 Physical adsorption (direct dyes): Low fastness
Dyeing conditions:
 Temperature

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 54 -

 pH
 Time
 Liquor ratio
 Salt and alkali concentration
After-treatments:
 Soaping
 Washing-off
 Fixing agents
 Heat setting

2. Types of color fastness

Color fastness is classified based on the external agency causing color change.

2.1 Color fastness to washing

Definition:
 Resistance of color to domestic or commercial laundering.
Causes of color loss:
 Hydrolysis of dye
 Poor fixation
 Inadequate washing-off
Assessment:
 Change in shade
 Staining of adjacent fabrics
Importance:
 Essential for all washable garments.

2.2 Color fastness to rubbing (crocking)

Definition:
 Resistance of color transfer when fabric is rubbed against another surface.
Types:
 Dry rubbing
 Wet rubbing
Critical for:
 Dark shades
 Denim
 Printed fabrics

2.3 Color fastness to light

Definition:
 Resistance of dyed fabric to fading when exposed to sunlight or artificial light.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 55 -

Causes of fading:
 UV radiation
 Photo-oxidation of dye molecules
Highly important for:
 Curtains
 Upholstery
 Outdoor textiles

2.4 Color fastness to perspiration

Definition:
 Resistance to color change due to human sweat.
Types of perspiration:
 Acidic (pH ~5.5)
 Alkaline (pH ~8)
Essential for:
 Sportswear
 Undergarments
 Summer clothing

2.5 Color fastness to water

Definition:
 Resistance of color to plain water exposure.
Importance:
 Relevant for rainwear and water-contact garments.

2.6 Color fastness to chlorinated water

Definition:
 Resistance to bleaching action of chlorine in swimming pool water.
Important for:
 Swimwear
 Sports textiles

2.7 Color fastness to dry cleaning

Definition:
 Resistance of color to organic solvents used in dry cleaning.
Critical for:
 Wool
 Silk
 Formal garments

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 56 -

2.8 Color fastness to heat (sublimation)

Definition:
 Resistance of dye to high temperature during ironing or heat setting.
Very important for:
 Polyester fabrics
 Heat transfer printing

[Link] and evaluation of color fastness

Color fastness is evaluated using standardized test methods. Generally, with ISO.

3.1 Gray scale

To evaluate: washing fastness, rubbing fastness, perspiration fastness, etc.

Grades range from:

5 = Excellent
1 = Poor

3.2 Blue wool scale

Used for light fastness testing

Grades range from:

8 = Excellent
1 = Poor

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 57 -

4. Testing methods

4.1 Color fastness to washing and laundering (ISO 105 C06)

To assess the color fastness to washing and laundering.

Apparatus:
 Washing Machin (for test)
 Grey scale
Sample:
 Dyed sample - 10cm × 4 cm
 Multifibre - 10cm × 4 cm
Recipe:
 Soap 5 g/l
 Sodium carbonate 2 g/l
 Temperature 95°C
 Time 4 hrs
 Number of steel ball 10
 M:L 1:50
After treatment:
 The specimen was dried at temperature below 60℃.

Evaluation:
the sample evaluated by grey scale for-
 Color change in shade
 Color staining.

4.2 Color fastness to rubbing (ISO 105 X12)

To assess dry and wet rubbing/

Apparatus:
 Crock meter
 Crocking cloth
 Grey scale for staining
Sample size:
 Specimen size 14 cm x 5 cm
 Crocking cloth size 5 cm x 5 cm

Procedure:
 Test specimen fastened by clamps to the baseboard of the testing device so that the long
direction of the specimen follows the track of the device.
 For the dry rubbing: the conditioned rubbing cloth placed flat over the end of the finger. At a
rate of one cycle per second, to and for movement in a straight line was rubbed, rubbing
was carried out by moving 10 times in 10 seconds, with a downward force of 9 ±0.2N.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 58 -

 For wet rubbing, the conditioned crocking cloth was weighed and then thoroughly
soaked in distilled water and reweighted to ensure take-up of 95% to 100%, Then it was
clipped in the finger and carried out the procedure as it is in case of dry rubbing and rated
similarly by the grey scale.

Evaluation:
 Conditioning and then evaluating was done by using grey scale for color staining.

4.3 Color fastness to perspiration (ISO 105 E04)

The part of garments which come into contact with the body where perspiration is heavy may
suffer serious local discoloration. This test was intended to determine the resistance of color of
dyed textile to the action of acid and alkali perspiration.

Apparatus:
 Perspirometer
 Multifibre
 Grey scale
Sample size:
 Dyed sample 10 cm X 4 cm
 Multifibre sample 10 cm X 4 cm
Recipe:
 L-histidinemonohydrochloride monohydrate 0.5 gm
 Di-sodium hydrogen orthophosphatedihydrate 2.3 gm
 Sodium chloride (NaCI) 5.0 gm
 Distilled water (H2O) 1000 ml
 pH (adjusted with 0.1 N NaOH or0.1 NCH3COOH) alklin medium 8.0 acid 5.5
 Temperature 2-37 c
 Time 4 hours
 M:L 1:50
 Pressure 10 lb

Procedure:
 Multifibre and fabric face side attached in shorter edge. Then the composite specimen
wetted in the above-mentioned perspiration solution at room temperature.
 Excess solution poured off and composite test specimen placed between two glass plates
under pressure of 10 lb and then placed in an oven (Temperature 37± 2℃) for 4 hrs.
After treatment:
 The specimen was dried at temperature below 60℃

Evaluation:
With grey scale for-
 Color change in shade
 Color staining

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 59 -

Color Models and Matching

Introduction
A color model is a systematic method for describing, representing, and reproducing colors using
numerical values. Color models provide a common language between human perception, digital
devices, and physical colorants such as dyes, pigments, inks, and paints.

Importance of color models in textiles:

 Shade matching
 Dye recipe formulation
 Color communication
 Color fastness testing
 Quality assurance
 Digital textile printing

Different color models are used depending on:

Primary color based:
 Additive color model: Light-based systems (screens, optics)
 Subtractive color model: Material-based systems (inks, dyes, pigments)
Color matching based:
 Hue based color model: Human visual perception-based systems (HSV / HSL)
 CIE color models: Perceptual & Scientific based systems

1. Primary color-based model

Primary colors mean that they cannot be created by mixing other colors.

1.1 Additive color model

Based on the addition of colored light. Colors are produced by combining different intensities of
red, green, and blue light.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 60 -

1.1.1 RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

It is additive color model. Red, green and blue of light are primary colors, by mixing these three
primary colors of light at different intensities to create a wide spectrum of colors, where full and
equal intensity of these three primary colors gives white light. A specific color is defined by a set of
three, each ranging from 0 to 255, which indicates the intensity of red, green, and blue light,
respectively.

Application:
 Used for digital displays like computer monitors, TVs, and phone screens.
Secondary colors of RGB:
 Blue + Green = Cyan
 Blue + Red = Magenta
 Green + Red = yellow
 Red + Green + Blue = White
Mixing example of RGB:
 Red 120 + Green 81 + Blue 169 = Royal purple

RGB is fundamental in digital design and color simulation, especially for previewing textile designs
on screens.

1.2 Subtractive color model

The subtractive model works by absorbing (subtracting) wavelengths of light using colorants such
as inks, dyes, or pigments. Based on reflected light.

1.2.1 CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key-Black)

It is subtractive color model. Cyan, magenta and yellow are primary colors, where key-black is
additional color, because CMY can't give pure black shade so K needed.
CMY model are secondary colors of RGB and vis versa.

Application:
 This model is standardized for inkjet printing to achieve a wider range of colors. On paper
CMYK works well, but on fabric there are limitations, for example blue and red shades are
difficult to achieve so they used as additional colors. Thats why digital inkjet printers comes
with combination of 6 or 8 colors including CMYK. A specific color is defined by the
percentage of primary colors, each ranging from 0 to 100% which indicates the intensity of
CMYK respectively.
Secondary colors of CMY:
 Magenta + Yellow = Red
 Cyan + Yellow = Green
 Magenta + Cyan = Blue
 Cyan + Magenta + Yellow = Black (dull black)
 Key-black is addition due to limitation of CMY
Mixing example of CMYK:
 Cyan 29% + Magenta 52% +Yellow 0% + Black 34% = Royal Purple

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 61 -

1.2.2 RYB (Red, Yellow, Blue)

It is also subtractive color model used in traditional art for painting and printing with pigments and
dyes. Red, yellow and blue are primary colors. This model is distinct from the subtractive CMYK
model (used for printing). Black can have bluer, redder or greener tone.

Secondary colors of RYB:

 Red + Yellow = Orange
 Yellow + Blue = Green
 Blue + Red = Purple

Textile printing relies heavily on subtractive mixing of dyes and pigments, making CMYK principles
essential for color matching.

2. Color matching-based model

These models are designed to match human perception of color, making them intuitive for artists,
designers, and colorists.

Colors matching:
 The important thing to know for color matching is that in RGB model, increase of value
means more lighter color and in CMYK/RYB model, increase of value means more darker
color. Generally, color matching for digital printer is done in HSL model and then the specific
printer profile converts it to CMYK and software/monitor profile as well as to RGB.

2.1 Hue-based color model

Mainly two standards are used, (HSV / HSL). Key Difference Between HSV and HSL is that HSV
focuses on brightness, while HSL balances light and dark equally.

2.1.1 HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness)

A color model that is more intuitive for human perception. Generally done in Photoshop. Hue is a
degree on the color wheel (360), Saturation is the color's intensity (0 to 100%), and Lightness is
the brightness (0 to 100%). This model is useful for creating color schemes and matching the
shad.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 62 -

2.2 CIE color models

(Perceptual & scientific models)
The CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage) color model is a standardized system defining
how humans perceive color, creating a universal "color space" (like CIE XYZ, CIELAB) to
numerically describe colors, essential for accurate color reproduction in displays and printing. It's
based on a "Standard Observer" (average human vision) and uses three values (tristimulus values
like XY,Z) representing light sensitivity, allowing any visible color to be specified and reproduced,
often visualized on a chromaticity diagram showing lightness (Y or L*) and chromaticity (x, y or a*,
b*)

2.2.1 CIE XYZ

First device-independent color model, based on human vision response, all visible colors can be
represented

Applications:
 Color measurement
 Color management systems
 Basis for other CIE models

2.2.2 CIE Lab* (CIELAB)

Most widely used model in textile laboratories for shade control and color difference analysis.

Components:
 L*: Lightness (0–100)
 a*: Green (–) to Red (+)
 b*: Blue (–) to Yellow (+)
Key Features:
 Perceptually uniform
 Device-independent
 Numerical color difference possible (ΔE)
Applications:
 Textile color matching

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 63 -

 Quality control
 Color fastness evaluation
 Dye recipe optimization

2.2.3 CIE LCh°

Provides a more intuitive understanding of color strength and tone while retaining LAB accuracy.

Components:
 L*: Lightness
 C*: Chroma (color strength)
 h°: Hue angle

3. Color matching
Color matching in textile dyeing and printing is the systematic process of reproducing a target color
on a textile substrate so that the dyed or printed fabric visually and instrumentally matches a given
standard. The standard may be a physical swatch, buyer-approved sample, Pantone reference, or
digital color data.

Importance of color matching:

 Color matching is essential due to:
 Buyer specifications and brand identity
 Shade consistency across lots and batches
 Reproducibility in bulk production
 Cost control by minimizing re-dyeing
 Compliance with international color tolerance standards

3.1 Color matching in dyeing vs printing

Color matching in dyeing:

In dyeing, color penetrates into the fiber structure. Matching depends on:
 Fiber type and blend ratio
 Dye class and chemistry
 Dye exhaustion, fixation, and diffusion
 Process parameters (pH, temperature, time)
Color matching in printing:
In printing, color is applied locally on the fabric surface. Matching depends on:
 Print paste formulation
 Pigment or dye concentration
 Binder and thickener system
 Penetration, sharpness, and surface reflection

Printing color matching is more complex due to pattern outlines, background contrast, and surface
texture.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 64 -

3.2 Color matching method

3.2.1 Visual matching

Color matching traditionally begins with visual assessment.

Human vision influenced by:

 Light source (D65, TL84, A)
 Observer angle (2° or 10°)
 Surrounding colors
 Individual perception differences
Limitations of visual matching:
 Subjective judgment
 Metamerism (colors matching under one light but not another)
 Eye fatigue and inconsistency

Therefore, visual matching is always supported by instrumental measurement.

3.2.2 Instrumental color matching

Using photo sensors and (data color) algorithms to assess colors.

Color measurement devices:

 Spectrophotometer (most accurate)
 Colorimeter (less detailed)
 Online color sensors (advanced production systems)
Color data representation:
Measured color is expressed using color spaces such as:
 CIELAB (L, a, b*)**
 CIELCH
 XYZ
Color difference (ΔE):
Color difference between sample and standard is calculated using:
 ΔE*ab (traditional)
 ΔE94
 ΔE00 (CIEDE2000 – most accurate)

Acceptable tolerance depends on buyer standards and fabric application

3.3 Computer color matching (CCM)

Computer Color Matching uses software (like, Match Print) and spectrophotometric data to assess
colors.

Concept of CCM:
 Predict dye recipes
 Minimize trial dyeing
 Optimize cost and accuracy

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 65 -

Advantages of CCM:
 Faster shade development
 Reduced dye and chemical usage
 Improved reproducibility
 Digital shade communication
Limitations of CCM:
 Requires accurate database
 Depends on consistent processing conditions
 Less effective with highly textured or special-effect fabrics

3.4 Metamerism in color matching

Metamerism occurs when two colors match under one light source but differ under another.

Types:
 Illuminate metamerism
 Observer metamerism
 Instrumental metamerism
Control measures:
 Multi-light source evaluation
 Balanced dye combinations
 Low-metamerism dye selection

Challenges in textile color matching:

 Batch-to-batch dye variation
 Fiber lot differences
 Environmental conditions
 Machine-to-machine variability
 Sustainability constraints (restricted dyes)
Typical acceptance criteria:
 Light shades: tighter tolerance
 Dark shades: relatively higher tolerance

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 66 -

Chapter (4

TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Terms

Axillaries

Chemicals

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 67 -

Terms

A few chemistries related terms usually used in processing.

pH
(Potential of Hydrogen)
The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions. A logarithmic scale used to specify the
acidity or basicity of aqueous solutions. Acidic solutions are measured to have lower pH values
than basic or alkaline solutions.

Cationic
Positively charged ion or particles

Anionic
Atoms or molecules with a net negative electrical charge

Nonionic
Atoms or molecules with no charge

Hydrophilic
Condition of a fiber/chemical. Having a strong affinity for or the ability to absorb water (water
loving)

Hydrophobic
Condition of a fiber/chemical. Lacking an affinity for or ability to absorb water (water hating).

Liquor
A solution (liquor) of dyestuff and dyeing auxiliaries

Liquor Ratio
Ratio of processing liquor to material weight.

Pick-up Ppercentage
Amount of liquor retained after padding.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 68 -

Absorption
The process of a gas or liquid being taken up into the pores of a substrate.

Adsorption
the process where atoms, ions, or molecules (adsorbate) stick to the surface of a solid or
liquid (adsorbent), forming a thin film

Diffusion
The movement of dyes or chemicals from the surface of a fiber to the inner core.

Amorphous
Condition or region of the cellulose in cotton that is more open and accessible to water, dyes, and
chemicals. Non-crystalline.

Exhaustion
Action where dye is transferred from bath to fabric until equilibrium is reached.

Dwell time
Time fabric remains in contact with chemicals.

Migration
Movement of dyestuffs from the heavily dyed areas to less deeply dyed areas of a substrate or
back into the dyebath.

Substantivity
Natural affinity of a dye towards a fiber.

Fixation
Percentage of dye chemically bonded to the fiber.

Emulsion
A suspension of a liquid in another liquid (i.e., oil in water).

Paste
Mixture containing colorant, thickener, binder, and auxiliaries.

Continuous process
High-speed process involving padding, drying, and fixation.

Batch process
Aa fixed quantity of fabric or yarn in a closed vessel.

Heat setting
Thermal treatment to stabilize synthetic fabrics.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 69 -

Shade
Specific depth and hue of color.

Tone
Relative warmth or coolness of a shade.

Metamerism
Color match under one light source but mismatch under another.

Color strength (K/S value)

Measure of depth of shade using spectrophotometer.

Whiteness index
Numerical value representing degree of whiteness.

Color fastness
Resistance of color to washing, light, rubbing, perspiration.

Crocking
Transfer of color during rubbing.

Effluent
Wastewater discharged after processing.

BOD (biological oxygen demand)

Measure of organic pollution in effluent.

COD (chemical oxygen demand)

Amount of oxygen required to oxidize pollutants.

Batch
Specific quantity processed under identical conditions.

Wet processing
All aqueous chemical treatments such as desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, and
finishing.

Dry processing
Mechanical processes like singeing, heat setting, calendaring, and sanforizing that do not involve
water.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 70 -

Auxiliaries

Introduction
Textile auxiliaries are chemical substances used in textile wet processing in addition to dyes, pigments, and
fibers to facilitate, improve, or enable processing operations. Although auxiliaries are not the main coloring
agents, they play a critical role in achieving process efficiency, product quality, reproducibility, and
environmental compliance.
Auxiliaries are used in pre-treatment, dyeing, printing, finishing, and wastewater treatment stages. Their
selection and compatibility determine color yield, fastness, handle, appearance, and machine performance.

1. Auxiliaries in pre-treatment processes

1.1 Surfactants
(surface-active agents)
are molecules with water-loving (hydrophilic) heads and oil-loving (hydrophobic) tails, allowing
them to reduce surface tension between liquids, gases, and solids, helping things mix that normally
wouldn't, like oil and water. They act as detergents, emulsifiers, wetting agents, and foaming
agents. Classified by their head group charge (anionic, cationic, nonionic, zwitterionic), they form
micelles to trap dirt, enabling cleaning.

1.2 Wetting agents

Substances that lower the surface tension of liquids, allowing them to spread more easily and
penetrate surfaces. They are used in pre-treatment and dyeing.

1.3 Sequestering agent

Chemical that binds to metal ions like calcium, magnesium, iron, and copper to prevent them from
interfering with processing steps such as scouring, bleaching, and dyeing. By deactivating these
metal ions, sequestering agents soften water, improve whiteness and brightness, prevent soap
scum and scale buildup, and ensure more uniform color application. They are crucial for achieving
high-quality results, especially when working with hard water, and are used throughout wet
processing.

1.4 Detergents
Acting as wetting agents to reduce water's surface tension, allowing chemicals to penetrate fibers
evenly for better scouring, desizing, bleaching, dyeing, and washing, ensuring cleaner fabrics,
improved absorbency, and consistent results by removing oils, waxes, and impurities, with modern
options being low-foam and eco-friendly.

1.5 Desizing agents

Chemicals or enzymes used in textiles to remove sizing materials. Key types include enzymatic
(amylase for starch) and oxidative (peroxides, hypochlorite)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 71 -

1.6 Oxidizing and reducing agents

Oxidizing agents (like hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite) are used for bleaching, desizing,
and creating effects, while reducing agents (like sodium hydrosulfite, sodium formaldehyde
sulfoxylate) are crucial for vat/sulfur dyeing, discharge printing (removing color), and neutralizing
excess oxidizers.

1.7 Stabilizing agent

Prevents unwanted chemical reactions, most commonly controlling hydrogen peroxide in bleaching
to prevent fabric damage (like pinholes) and ensure even whiteness. Common types including
silicates, polycarboxylic acids, and organic stabilizers. They also act as buffers and sequestering
agents, managing pH and inactivating metal ions that catalyze peroxide breakdown.

1.8 Optical brightener (Leco)

"Leco" is a brand or common name for an optical brightener, which is a synthetic chemical, fabric
brightener products to make clothes appear whiter and brighter. These brighteners work by
absorbing ultraviolet (UV) light and re-emitting it as visible blue light, which masks yellowing and
gives textiles a "whiter-than-white" appearance. PH can be 7 to 9.

2. Auxiliaries in dyeing / printing

2.1 Hygroscopic agents

Like glycerine, urea, and diethylene glycol, absorb moisture to keep dyes mobile in printing pastes,
ensuring deep, even color penetration during steaming; they also function in finishing for moisture
management in performance fabrics, enhancing comfort by wicking sweat away from the skin, with
modern options including polymers and nano-agents.

2.2 Exhausting agents

In textile dyeing, primarily salts (Glauber's salt/sodium sulfate, common salt) help move dye
molecules onto the fiber by neutralizing negative charges, forcing dyes to approach and bind,
crucial for anionic dyes on cellulose fibers like cotton.

2.3 Leveling agent

(Retarding or Migration inhibitor)
Ensures dyes spread evenly and absorb uniformly onto fabric, preventing patchy or streaky color
by slowing down initial dye uptake, improving dye dispersion, and allowing more time for even
penetration, crucial for consistent, high-quality shades across different fibers

2.4 Carriers
(Accelerator agents)
Organic chemicals, like phenyls or naphthalenes, used mainly for dyeing hydrophobic fibers like
polyester at lower temperatures (around 100°C) by swelling the fiber, increasing dye solubility, and
allowing disperse dyes to penetrate. They work by temporarily plasticizing the polyester, lowering
its glass transition temperature, and opening up polymer chains for dye molecules to enter, which
is essential for atmospheric pressure dyeing.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 72 -

2.5 Dispersing agent

Stabilizes finely ground, water-insoluble dye particles (like disperse dyes) in water, preventing
them from clumping (aggregating) and ensuring they remain evenly suspended in the dye bath for
uniform, streak-free coloring of synthetic fabrics, acting as a protective colloid.

2.6 Mordent
A substance, that helps bind dyes to fabric fibers, natural dyes that lack inherent fiber affinity,
mordants like alum (Potassium aluminium sulphate) or tannins create a bridge, allowing colors to
adhere strongly, especially on fibers like wool, silk, cotton, and linen.

2.7 Anti-foaming agents (defoamers)

Chemicals, often silicone-based or mineral oil derivatives, added to wet processes like dyeing,
scouring, and printing to prevent or eliminate foam caused by surfactants and agitation.

2.8 Dye fixing agents

Improve colorfastness by forming strong bonds between dye molecules and fabric fibers,
preventing colors from bleeding, fading, or washing out. Common types include cationic polymers
(like Poly DADMAC), quaternary ammonium compounds, polyamines, and sulfonium compounds.

2.9 Acid liberating agents

Release acid gradually, often with increasing temperature, to control pH for uniform dyeing
(especially nylon/wool) or catalyze crosslinking in pigment printing, improving dye fixation and
leveling, reducing defects, and enhancing efficiency by slowly lowering pH from alkaline to acidic
conditions as needed. Common examples include diammonium phosphate (DAP) in printing and
temperature-sensitive organic acid precursors in dyeing, replacing harsh mineral acids.

2.10 Stripping agents

Remove unwanted color from dyed fabrics, correcting mistakes or preparing for re-dyeing, using
either reductive (like sodium hydrosulfite) or oxidative (like hydrogen peroxide) methods to break
down dye molecules.

2.11 Thickeners
Control viscosity of print paste and prevent bleeding. Natural (starch, guar gum), Synthetic
(polyacrylates), Semi-synthetic (CMC)

2.12 Binders
(Pigment Printing)
Bind pigment particles to fabric surface. Film-forming polymers, flexible and durable

3. Auxiliaries in finishing

3.1 Softening agents

Finishing chemicals, like silicones or cationic surfactants (Esterquat), that reduce friction between
fibers, improving fabric's feel (hand), drape, flexibility, and reducing static, making it smoother,
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 73 -

softer, and more comfortable, while also aiding sewing and cutting, though some types might
reduce water absorbency or affect color.

3.2 Water repellents

(Proofing agents)
Creates a hydrophobic surface, making fabrics shed water while often maintaining breathability,
with common types including Fluorocarbons, Silicones and Waxes/Resins. Modern trends focus on
safer, non-fluorine (C6, C4) or nano-based treatments to replace older, persistent chemicals (like
PFOA), providing water, oil, and stain resistance for outdoor gear, sportswear, and upholstery.

3.3 Anti-static agents

Chemicals (like cationic polymers, fatty acid esters) applied to fabrics, especially synthetics
(polyester, acrylic), to prevent static cling neutralizing charges, and increasing surface conductivity.

3.4 Crease resistant agents

Often cross-linking agents, applied during finishing, form bonds within fibers (especially cellulose)
to stabilize the fabric structure, preventing wrinkles and maintaining smoothness. Some
formaldehyde-based resins (like DMU, DMEU) for cotton and newer, formaldehyde-free options
such as citric acid and glyoxal, offering better environmental profiles.

3.5 Antiseptic agents

(Antimicrobial Agents)
Chemicals like silver, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), polyhexamethylene biguanide
(PHMB), and triclosan applied during finishing. These agents work by killing (biocidal) or stopping
the growth (biostatic) of bacteria and fungi, using mechanisms like disrupting cell membranes
(QACs) or releasing ions (silver).

3.6 Flame retardants

Reduce flammability of textiles. Used for protective clothing, home textiles.

4. Modern textile considerations

Aauxiliaries must comply with eco-ffriendly environment.

Certification:
 ZDHC MRSL
 REACH regulations
 OEKO-TEX® standards
Trends include:
 Formaldehyde-free auxiliaries
 Biodegradable surfactants
 Low-salt and low-alkali dyeing systems

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 74 -

Chemicals

Introduction of few chemicals usually used in processing.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Primary eco-friendly bleaching agent, removing natural color from fibers like cotton, wool, and linen
to improve whiteness, absorbency, and dye uptake, without the harshness of chlorine, breaking
down into water and oxygen. It's applied under alkaline conditions (pH 10-11.5) with stabilizers to
prevent fiber damage, working efficiently in controlled temperature baths (around 90-95°C). Also
used in ETP. PH typically ranges from 3 to 6, depending on its concentration.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

an inorganic compound also known as caustic soda or lye. Crucial in the textile industry for
scouring, mercerization, and finishing to clean fibers, improve dye uptake, increase strength, and
add luster, primarily by removing natural impurities and chemically modifying cotton's cellulose
structure for brighter, durable, silk-like fabrics. PH depends on strength, for example, a 1 Molar (M)
solution has a pH of 14, while a 0.01 M solution has a pH of 12.

Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃)

Known as soda ash, a water-soluble, alkaline inorganic salt that is white. Very crucial in the textile
industry for adjusting pH, acting as a dye fixer for vibrant, lasting colors, and as a mild bleaching
agent to remove stains and impurities, improving overall fabric quality and dye absorption by
softening water and neutralizing acids. PH ranging 11 to 12

Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO)

Also known as liquid bleach, a powerful, cost-effective bleaching agent primarily used to remove
natural pigments from fibers like cotton and linen, creating a uniform white base for dyeing, but
requires careful control (pH, temp, concentration) to prevent fabric damage and needs anti-chlorine
treatment to stop yellowing and fiber degradation, with alternatives like hydrogen peroxide
sometimes preferred for environmental reasons. PH ranging from 11 to 13.

Sodium hydrosulphite (Na2S2O4)

Also known as Hydrose and Sodium dithionite, is a white crystalline powder used primarily as a
strong reducing agent, highly soluble in water and is used as a bleaching agent and for color
removal (reducing and stripping), acting as a powerful oxygen scavenger. PH with typical values
ranging from 5.5 to 10.5.

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃)

It is also known as baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate. Vital in textiles for pH control in
dyeing (especially reactive dyeing of cotton), ensuring color fastness by making dyes bond
permanently with fibers, and as a mild alkali in washing/finishing to remove impurities, soften
fabrics, neutralize acids. Its mild, non-toxic nature makes it a sustainable alternative, reducing
harsh chemical reliance and improving wastewater quality, supporting eco-friendly production. PH
ranging 8 to 8.5
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 75 -

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Commonly known as table salt, is an ionic compound. Vital in textile processing, primarily in dyeing
cellulosic fibers (like cotton) with reactive/direct dyes, acting as an electrolyte to improve dye
exhaustion and fixation by reducing negative charge repulsion between dye/fiber, making colors
deeper and even. PH approximately 7

Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)

A white, odorless, crystalline solid, highly soluble in water. Crucial in the textile industry, primarily in
dyeing, acting as a leveling agent and electrolyte to improve dye exhaustion, color fastness, and
uniformity by reducing fiber repulsion and controlling bath conditions, ensuring vibrant, lasting
colors. It's used as a filler in powders, a stabilizing agent preventing color loss, and helps regulate
dye bath viscosity for consistent penetration into cellulose fibers, making it essential for high-
quality textile finishing. PH ranging 6.5 to 8.5

Sodium nitrate (NaNO₃)

Primarily used as a dyeing auxiliary and bleaching agent, helping to stabilize azo dyes, fix colors
better (mordant action), improve color intensity, and enhance fastness against light/heat by
preventing diazonium salt breakdown, making colors brighter and longer-lasting, especially in
harsh dyeing conditions. when dissolved in pure water, its solution has a pH of 7.0

Sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na2SO410H2O)

A white, crystalline salt, also known as Glauber's salt and mirabilite. It is crucial in the textile
industry as a dyeing auxiliary, acting as a leveling and retarding agent for reactive and direct dyes;
it increases the electrolyte concentration (salting out effect) to help dyes bind uniformly to fibers,
controls pH, enhances dye uptake, ensures color fastness, and reduces effluent pollution, making
dyeing more efficient and eco-friendlier. PH 6 to 8

Urea (CH₄N₂O)
It is vital in the textile industry, acting as a humectant (moisture retainer) and swelling agent in
dyeing and printing (especially with reactive dyes for cotton), helping dyes penetrate fibers for
deeper, brighter colors, and improving dye solubility and color yield. It's added to print pastes and
dye baths. PH close to 7.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

A strong, corrosive, and highly pungent aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, It is naturally found
in the stomach as gastric acid. Used for fabric preparation, especially in desizing (breaking down
starch), scouring, and neutralizing alkaline residues before bleaching or dyeing cotton, improving
fiber quality and dye uptake. It's also used for bleaching fibers, rust removal, though its strong
corrosive nature requires careful handling and pH control to prevent damage to fabrics like silk or
weakening cotton. PH can be below 0.

Acetic acid (CH₃COOH)

Also, ethanoic acid, is a colorless liquid with a pungent, vinegar-like odor and is the main
component of vinegar. It is vital in the textile industry for controlling dye bath pH, fixing dyes for

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 76 -

vibrant, lasting color, and acting as a mild acid to neutralize alkalinity, ensuring uniform dyeing and
better fabric finish, while as a cleaning agent, replacing harsher acids for safety and effectiveness.
PH ranging 2.4 to 2.8

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

A highly corrosive, colorless, crucial in textiles for producing fibers like rayon, carbonizing wool
(removing impurities), dyeing (fixing colors), bleaching, and finishing (wrinkle resistance,
softening); it also helps analyze fiber blends by dissolving cotton. It's used in processes like acid
dyeing, improving dye absorption, and even in water treatment for pH balance in plants. PH
ranging 0.3 to 1.

Sulfonic acid (RSO3)

is a class of organosulfur compounds with the general formula, where (R) is an organic group.
Especially Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid (LABSA) and its derivatives, are vital in the textile
industry as surfactants for wetting, dispersing, and emulsifying, ensuring even dye absorption and
impurity removal during scouring and dyeing. They act as leveling agents, dye carriers, and pH
regulators for vibrant, fast colors, and are also used in detergents, printing auxiliaries.
PH below 1

Formic acid (HCOOH)

A simplest carboxylic acid, colorless liquid with a pungent odor. Used for controlling pH, fixing
dyes, improving color fastness, and neutralizing alkaline baths, ensuring vibrant, even coloring on
natural and synthetic fibers like wool and nylon, and also acts as an antimicrobial agent and
decontaminant in finishing and processing. It helps stabilize dye baths for better absorption, acts
as a reducing agent for certain dyes, and strengthens the bond between dye and fabric, PH around
2 to 3.

Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇)

Versatile, eco-friendly chemical in the textile industry, used primarily as a pH buffer and chelating
agent in dyeing for consistent color, used as resistant in resist printing with reactive dyes, a
formaldehyde-free cross-linker for wrinkle/crease resistance in cotton, and to create antimicrobial
finishes. PH depends on solution typically 1.5 to 2.6.

Potassium hypochlorite (KCIO)

A powerful bleaching and oxidizing agent, similar to sodium hypochlorite, used to whiten cotton
and blends for uniform dyeing, though it's often considered more eco-friendly as it can be
generated in situ or used with greener methods, reducing transport/storage hazards, but still
requires careful handling due to corrosive nature. Its main role is removing natural color to create a
bright, consistent base for vibrant dyes, often paired with hydrogen peroxide for enhanced results.
PH typically ranging from around 10.2 to 10.4.

Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(CIO)2)

Commonly known as bleaching powder. Primarily used as a powerful bleaching agent for natural
fibers like cotton, linen, and silk, removing impurities for brighter, cleaner fabrics, and also for yarn
sanitation, but must be applied carefully to avoid fabric damage. It acts as a disinfectant, helps

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 77 -

achieve export-quality brightness, and can even function as a wool anti-shrink agent, improving
textile processing and final product quality. PH typically ranging from 10.8 to 12.

Diammonium Phosphate (NH4)2HPO4)

Simply known as DAP, a highly effective, water-soluble, helpful for Pigment dyes penetrate to
other side of fabric, flame retardant for fabrics like cotton and blends, forming a protective char
layer when heated to block oxygen and reduce flammability. Beyond fire safety, DAP's uses extend
to treating textile wastewater (as a coagulant aid) and as a component in specific textile printing
formulations. PH ranging 7.5 to 8.

Zinc chloride (ZnCl2)

Used as a mordant to fix dyes, improving color fastness, as a dehydrating agent, and in
mercerization to swell cotton fibers for enhanced lustre and dye absorption, also acting as a fabric
conditioner and raw material for components like bobbins, ultimately boosting fiber strength and
dye uptake. PH typically around 4 to 5.5

Aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3)

Also called alum, vital as a mordant, chemically binding dyes to fibers for vibrant, wash-fast colors,
and also acts as a thickener in printing, a stiffening agent for fabrics like denim, and aids in water
treatment for quality control. It helps achieve sharp patterns, improves fabric texture, and fixes
colors, making them resistant to fading and bleeding. PH in 1% solution typically 2 to 3.5.

Ammonia (NH₃)
Crucial in the textile industry, primarily for treating cellulosic fibers like cotton to improve strength,
luster, and wrinkle resistance (ammonia mercerization), acting as a greener alternative to caustic
soda. It's also used in scouring to clean fibers, degumming silk, and manufacturing synthetic fibers
like nylon and rayon, enhancing properties like softness, dye uptake, and durability across various
processes. PH typically ranging 11 to 12.

Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Simply called Silica, used for high-heat protection (silica fabrics for insulation/fire safety), as nano-
coatings for water/dirt repellence, and as finishing agents to improve softness, dye fixation, flame
retardancy, and wrinkle resistance, leveraging its thermal stability and surface modification
properties for enhanced fabric functionality in sportswear, protective gear, and industrial textiles.
PH ranging 11 to 13.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 78 -

Chapter (5

DYEING
Lab Dips

Direct Dyes Dyeing

Reactive Dyes Dyeing

Disperse Dyes Dyeing

Vat Dyes Dyeing

Azoic Dyes Dyeing

Pigment Dyes Dyeing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 79 -

Lab Dips
Introduction
A lab dip is a small-scale dyeing sample prepared in a laboratory to match a specific color shade
required by a buyer. It serves as a reference standard for bulk dyeing in textile processing. Lab
dips are critical in ensuring color accuracy, reproducibility, cost efficiency, and customer approval
before proceeding to large-scale production.

Purpose and importance:

 Lab dips are prepared to achieve the following objectives:
 Accurate shade matching to buyer-provided standards or references
 Selection of the correct dye class and combination
 Optimization of dye concentration and recipe
 Assessment of dye–fiber compatibility
 Evaluation of color fastness properties
 Reduction of production cost and wastage
 Approval of shade prior to bulk dyeing or printing

Without lab dips, large-scale dyeing becomes risky due to uncontrolled shade variations.

1. Preparation for lab dips

1.1 Lab dip references

Lab dips are matched against one or more of the following references:
 Buyer-provided fabric swatch
 Pantone / TCX / TPG color codes
 Previously approved standard shade
 Digital color data from spectrophotometer (L, a, b*)**

1.2 Fabric considerations

Lab dips must be developed on the same fabric type intended for bulk production:
 Fabric type (cotton, polyester, viscose, wool, silk, blends)
 Yarn count and twist
 Fabric construction (woven/knitted)
 GSM and fabric density
 Pre-treatment history (scoured, bleached, mercerized)

1.3 Dye selection

The dye class depends on the fiber type:
 Cotton Reactive, Direct, Vat, Sulfur
 Polyester Disperse
 Wool / Silk Acid, Metal complex
 Nylon Acid, Disperse
 Blends Combination dye systems

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 80 -

1.4 Auxiliaries and chemicals

Auxiliaries play a crucial role in shade development and fixation.
 Wetting agent Improves liquor penetration
 Electrolyte (salt) Promotes dye exhaustion
 Alkali (soda ash / caustic soda) Dye fixation
 Levelling agent Uniform dyeing
 pH controller

1.5 Dyeing equipment

Lab dips are produced using laboratory dyeing equipment, such as:
 Infrared (IR) dyeing machines
 Beaker dyeing machines
 Laboratory jiggers
 Pad–dry–cure lab units (for continuous processes)

2. Lab dip recipes

A lab dip recipe is a precisely formulated dyeing recipe prepared at laboratory scale to reproduce a
specific target shade on a textile substrate before bulk (production) dyeing.

2.1 Reactive Dye

(Cotton)
Example recipe:
 Fabric 10 g
 Liquor ratio 1:20
 Reactive Yellow 0.60%
 Reactive Red 0.25%
 Reactive Blue 0.15%
 Glauber salt 40 g/L
 Soda ash 10 g/L
 Wetting agent 1 g/L

2.2 Disperse dye

(Polyester)
Example recipe:
 Fabric 5 g
 Liquor ratio 1:20
 Disperse Yellow 0.80%
 Disperse Red 0.30%
 Disperse Blue 0.20%
 Dispersing agent 1 g/L
 pH 4.5–5.5
 Carrier (if required) 1–2%

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 81 -

3. Lab dip dyeing procedure

Step-by-step process (reactive):

 Weigh fabric accurately
 Prepare dye stock solutions
 Add water and auxiliaries
 Introduce fabric
 Add dyes according to recipe
 Control temperature rise
 Add salt/alkali (if applicable)
 Maintain dyeing time
 Rinse, neutralize, soap
 Dry and condition sample

3.1 Shade evaluation and adjustment

After dyeing:
 Visual comparison under D65, TL84, and A light
 Instrumental assessment using spectrophotometer
 ΔE, L*, a*, b* values analysed
Recipe corrections:
 Increase Yellow → warmer shade
 Increase Blue → cooler shade
 Increase Red → deeper tone
 Adjust depth by changing total % owf
Types of lab dips:
 First lab dip Initial recipe
 Correction lab dip Adjusted recipe
 Approval lab dip Final accepted sample
 Reference lab dip Stored for bulk matching

Common problems in lab dip recipes:

 Shade mismatch Incorrect dye ratio
 Metamerism Poor dye selection
 Uneven dyeing Improper auxiliaries
 Poor fastness Under-fixation
 Lab–bulk variation Process inconsistency

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 82 -

Direct Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Direct dyes are a class of water-soluble anionic dyes (also called substantive dyes) that can dye
cellulosic fibers directly from an aqueous solution without the use of a mordant. They are called
direct because they show inherent affinity for fibers such as cotton, viscose, linen, and paper pulp.
These dyes are widely used in the textile industry due to, simple dyeing procedures, low cost, wide
shade range and good levelling properties. However, they generally show moderate to poor wash
fastness, which limits their use in high-performance textiles.

1. Chemical nature and structure

Chemical characteristics:
 Mostly azo dyes (mono-azo, di-azo, or poly-azo)
 Contain sulfonic acid groups (–SO₃Na) for water solubility
 Large, planar molecular structure enhances fiber affinity
Functional groups:
 Azo group (–N=N–) → chromophore
 Amino or hydroxyl groups → auxochromes
 Sulfonate groups → solubility and substantivity
Suitable fibers:
 Cotton
 Viscose rayon
 Linen
 Jute
 Paper pulp
 Sometimes nylon (limited use)
Dye fiber bonding mechanism:
 Hydrogen bonding
 Van der Waals forces
 Dipole–dipole interactions
There is no covalent bond, which explains the lower wet fastness.

2. Classification

Class A (self-levelling):
 Good levelling, less salt sensitive. Example: Congo Red
Class B (salt-controlled):
 Require salt addition for exhaustion. Example: Direct Blue 1
Class C (temperature-controlled):
 High temperature needed, poor levelling. Example: Direct Black 38
Based on shade:
 Yellows
 Reds

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 83 -

 Blues
 Browns
 Blacks

3. Dyeing methods
For cotton, exhaust method

3.1 Batch dyeing (most common)

Dye is absorbed from the dye bath into the fiber with the help of electrolyte (salt).

Machines batch process:

 Winch (rope form) or Jagger (open width form)

Typical recipe:
 Direct dye X % owf
 Glauber’s salt (Na₂SO₄) 10–40 g/L
 Soda ash (optional) 1–2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Liquor ratio 1:10 to 1:30
 Temperature 90–100 °C
 Time 45–60 minutes
 pH Neutral to slightly alkaline (pH 6.5–8)
Dyeing procedure (step-by-step):
 Prepare Dye Bath
 Dissolve dye in hot water
 Add wetting agent
 Material Loading
 Add fabric at 40–50 °C
 Salt Addition (Add salt gradually to promote exhaustion)
 Temperature Rise
 Raise temperature to 90–100 °C
 Dyeing Time (Maintain for 45–60 minutes)
 Rinsing (Cold and hot rinse)
 Soaping (Mild soap at 60–70 °C)
 Final Rinse and Drying

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 84 -

3.2 Continuous dyeing

Large fabric production

Methods include:
 Pad–dry
 Pad–steam
 Pad–batch
Standard recipe:
 Direct dye 10–50 g/L
 Urea 20–50 g/L
 Salt 10–30 g/L
 Wetting agent 1 g/L
 Pick-up 70–80%
 Drying 120–130 °C

3.3 After-treatment
Since direct dyes have poor wash fastness, after-treatments are need to applied.

Typical recipe:
 Copper sulphate (CuSO4) 0.5 to 2 % for light fastness
 Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) 0.5 to 2% for washing fatness.
 Acetic Acid. 1 to 4% for PH maintain

4. Comparison with other cellulosic dyes

Property Direct Reactive Vat

Ease of dyeing Very easy Moderate Complex
Wash fastness Poor–Moderate Excellent Excellent
Cost Low Medium High
Bond type Physical Covalent Insoluble

Applications of direct dyes:

 Bed sheets
 Curtains
 Towels (low-cost)
 Decorative fabrics
 Paper products

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 85 -

Reactive Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Reactive dyes are a class of water-soluble anionic dyes that form covalent bonds with textile fibers,
particularly cellulosic fibers such as cotton, viscose, linen, and lyocell. Unlike other dye classes that
rely mainly on physical attraction, reactive dyes chemically react with the fiber, resulting in
excellent color fastness and bright shades.
Reactive dyes are widely used in the textile industry due to their wide color gamut, ease of
application, and high wet fastness, making them suitable for apparel, home textiles, and technical
textiles.
Historical background:
 Reactive dyes were first introduced commercially in 1956 by ICI under the trade name
Procion dyes. Their introduction revolutionized cotton dyeing by enabling wash-fast bright
colors without the need for after-treatments such as mordanting.
Fiber compatibility:
 Cotton
 Viscose / Rayon
 Linen
 Lyocell / Modal
 Wool and silk (under controlled acidic–neutral conditions)
 Polyamide (limited use)

1. Chemical structure

A typical reactive dye molecule consists of:

 Chromophore – provides color (azo, anthraquinone, phthalocyanine)
 Reactive group – forms covalent bond with fiber
 Solubilizing groups – usually sulfonic acid (–SO₃H) groups
 Linking group – connects chromophore and reactive group
Bond formation mechanism:
In alkaline conditions
 Cellulose forms cellulosate ions (Cell–O⁻)
 Reactive group reacts with –OH group of cellulose
 Covalent ether bond is formed
 Competing reaction: hydrolysis of dye

2. Reactive groups
Common reactive systems.

2.1 Di chlorotriazine (DCT)

(with two chlorine atoms)
Also called, Cold brand reactive dyes (M).

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 86 -

Reaction type:
 Nucleophilic substitution
Properties:
 Very active, quick hydrolysis and dissolve in water, excellent up to medium bright colors but
not good heavy dark colors, good affinity for cellulose fiber but low fixation rate, process on
room temperature.
Brands:
 Procion M / MX
 Levafix E
 Indian brands etc.

2.2 Monochlorotriazine (MCT)

(with single chlorine atom)
Also called, Hot brand reactive dyes (H)

Reaction type:
 Nucleophilic substitution
Properties:
 Mild active, easy dissolve in water but not quick hydrolysis, excellent for all shades up to
heavy dark shades, good affinity and fixation rate, fixation processes on high temperature
up to 95 c.
Brands:
 Procion H (ICI)
 Cibacron (Achroma)
 Dremarin P (Sandoz) ect.

2.3 Vinyl sulfone (VS)

(with Alkaline it becomes vinyl sulfone group)
Also famous as Remazol dyes.

Reaction type:
 Michael addition
Properties:
 Store in inactive form, do not hydrolysis with moisturizer, very strong covalent bond, clean
brilliant colors, balanced reactivity for good fixation, can mix with monochloro triazine to
increase strength, environment friendly as compare to cold and hot brands, ect.
Brands:
 Ramazol
 Bezaktiv V (CHT)
 Dycrofix VS
 Saraf VS
 Sumifix Supra (DyStar)
 Cibacron (Archroma), act.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 87 -

2.4 Bifunctional
(VS + MCT)
Advanced textile colorants with two reactive groups per molecule, allowing them to form strong
covalent bonds with fibers at two points, leading to much higher fixation.

Reaction type:
 Dual reaction

Properties:
 Possess two groups (Vinyl Sulfone (VS) and Monochlorotriazine (MCT) in hetero-types) that
chemically bond to the fiber. Higher dye utilization, meaning less unfixed dye washes off,
reducing effluent pollution. Excellent resistance to fading from light, washing, and rubbing.
Produce bright, deep shades with good leveling properties. Compatible with various dyeing
methods like exhaust, cold pad batch, and continuous.
Brands:
 KISCO (Synozol)
 CHT (Bezaktiv, BeSo®),
 Vipul Organics (ME Series)
 Dynex Industries (HE Type)
 Meghmani Global

3. Dyeing methods

3.1 Exhaust dyeing method

Conventional batch method. Dye is exhausted from dyebath onto fiber using salt, followed by alkali
fixation.

Machines:
 Winch, soft flow, Jigger, etc.
 Jet (high temperature) not common
Typical recipe (cotton fabric):
 Reactive dye X % owf
 Common salt / Glauber salt 30–80 g/L
 Soda ash (Na₂CO₃) 10–20 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 M:L ratio 1:10–1:20
Dyeing procedure:
 Load fabric in water at 30–40 °C
 Add dye and run for 10–15 min
 Add salt in 2–3 portions to promote exhaustion
 Raise temperature to 60 °C
 Add alkali slowly for fixation
 Dye for 45–60 min

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 88 -

 Drain bath
 Rinse and soap to remove hydrolyzed dye

3.2 Cold pad-batch (CPB) method

Dye is padded onto fabric and fixed at room temperature over time.

Machin:
 Padder as available
Recipe (padding bath):
 Reactive dye: X g/L
 Urea: 50–100 g/L
 Soda ash: 15–20 g/L
 Wetting agent: 1 g/L
Process steps:
 Padding (70–80% pick-up)
 Batching (roll fabric, wrap in plastic)
 Storage at 20–30 °C for 8–24 hours
 Washing and soaping

Advantages:
 Low energy consumption
 High dye fixation
 Uniform shades

3.3 Pad-dry-cure method

Common in continuous dyeing ranges.

Process sequence:
 Padding with dye + alkali
 Drying at 100–120 °C

 Curing at 150–160 °C (1–3 min)

 Washing and soaping

(Urea also being used in continuous process and in printing past)

Features:
 High productivity
 Suitable for large production volumes

3.4 Stripping of reactive dye

The reactive dye cannot be satisfactory stripped from fiber due to covalent bond between dye
molecule and fiber. Stripping becomes necessary when uneven dyeing occurs. By stripping azo
group (–N=N–) from the dye is removed.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 89 -

Partial stripping:
Partial stripping is obtained by treating the dyed fabric with dilute acetic acid or formic acid.
Treatment is continued until shade is removed by desired amount. After that a through washing is
necessary to remove the product hydrolysis.
Recipe:
 Acetic acid 5-10 parts
Or
 Formic acid 2.5 to 10 parts
 Water 1000 parts
 Temperature 70 to 100c
 Time until desired shade is obtained.

Full stripping:
 For complete stripping the fabrics are first treated with sodium hydrosulphite (hydrose) at
boil then washed off and bleached with 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at room
temperature. This is carried out for 30 min.

Applications:
 Apparel fabrics (shirts, dresses, denim)
 Home textiles (bedsheets, curtains, towels)
 Knitted fabrics
 Printed cotton fabrics

Modern developments focus on:

 Low-salt reactive dyes
 High-fixation bifunctional dyes
 Cationized cotton dyeing (salt-free)
 Effluent treatment and reuse

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 90 -

Disperse Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Disperse dyes are non-ionic, sparingly water-soluble dyes primarily used for dyeing hydrophobic
synthetic fibers, especially polyester, and to a lesser extent acetate, triacetate, nylon, and acrylic
fibers. They are applied as a fine aqueous dispersion rather than a true solution.
Disperse dyes are essential in modern textile processing because polyester constitutes a major
share of global textile fiber consumption.
Historical background:
 Developed in the 1920s for dyeing cellulose acetate. Later adapted for polyester fibers after
their commercialization in the 1940s. Continuous development led to high-temperature
stable, sublimation-resistant dyes for thermo fixation and transfer printing.
Properties / mechanism:
 Insoluble in water, they are applied with dispersion agents in water and rely on heat to open
the fibers' structure allowing diffusion into fiber amorphous regions and held in place by van
der Waals forces and hydrophobic bonds. No chemical bond is formed; dye fixation occurs
by solid solution formation. Good lightfastness and wash fastness on synthetic fabrics,
though rub resistance can be weaker compared to other dye types, poor sublimation
fastness, some disperse dyes particularly Disperse Blue 106 and 124, are common causes
of textile dye allergies, etc.
Chemical nature:
 Azo dyes
 Anthraquinone dyes
 Nitro and methine dyes
 Low molecular weight
 Finely ground powders or liquids
Fibers dyed with Disperse dyes:
 Polyester (PET) – primary fiber
 Cellulose acetate & triacetate
 Polyamide (limited)
 Polyester blends (PC, PES/EL)

1. Classification of Disperse dyes

1.1 By Energy level

Low energy:
 Small molecules, fast diffusioz (Pale shades)
Medium energy:
 Balanced properties, (General dyeing)
High energy:
 Large molecules, high sublimation fastness (Deep shades, thermo fixation)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 91 -

1.2 By Application temperature

Application:
 Carrier dyeing dyes
 High-temperature dyeing dyes
 Thermosol dyes

1.3 Brands
Dispersol (BASF), Cibaset (CIBA), Foron (Clariant), Resolin (Dystar). BEMACRON (CHT Group),
Synolon (KISCO), Dycrosperse (Jagson), PAPILION F (KISCO), and PROsperse (PRO Chemical
and Dye), etc.

2. Chemicals used with Disperse dyes

2.1 Dispersing and leveling agents

 Naphthalene sulfonic acid (C10H8O3S)
 Cresol (C7H8O)
 Irgasol DAM. a brand name of "naphthalene sulfonate"

2.2 Carrier and swelling agents

 Ortho phenyl phenol
 Pera phenyl phenol
 O-dichlorobenzene
 Trichlorobenzene
 Methyl salicylate (wintergreen oil)
 Dimethyl ester of phthalic acid.
 Benzoic acid and salicylic acid are also used, etc.

3. Dyeing methods
Three types of method generally used.

3.1 High temperature–high pressure (HTHP) dyeing

Most common method for polyester, performed on jet dyeing machine uses high pressure to force
a jet of dye liquor through a closed-loop system to transport and dye polyester fabrics. This
process is highly effective because the jet's turbulence helps the disperse dye penetrate the
synthetic fiber while the fabric is gently moved through the machine, resulting in efficient, uniform,
etc.

Process conditions:
 Temperature: 130–135°C
 Pressure: 2–3 bar
 Time: 30–60 minutes
 pH: 4.5–5.5 (acidic)
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 92 -

Typical recipe (polyester):

 Disperse dye X % owf
 Dispersing agent 1–2 g/L
 Leveling agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Acetic acid To pH 4.5–5.5
 Anti-foaming agent As required
 Anti-crease agent. 0.1 to 0.5 g/L
 Material to liquor ratio 1:8–1:12
Washing:
 Caustic Soda. 1 gpl
 Hydro. 0.5 gpl
 Temperature 20 to 30 c

Advantages:
 No carrier required
 Excellent dye penetration
 High color yield

3.2 Carrier dyeing method

Used when HT machines are unavailable. Can be carried out on Winch and Jigger.

Process conditions:
 Temperature: 95–100°C
 Carrier concentration
Typical recipe:
 Disperse dye X % owf
 Carrier 1–3% owf
 Dispersing agent 1–2 g/L
 Acetic acid pH 4.5–5
 Leveling agent 0.5–1 g/L
Washing:
 Caustic Soda. 2 gpl
 Hydro. 1 gpl
 Temperature. 30 to 40 c

Disadvantages:
 Environmental concerns
 Fiber strength loss
 Odor issues

3.3 Thermosol dyeing (continuous process)

Used for woven polyester fabrics.

Process steps:
 Padding with dye liquor

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 93 -

 Drying (110–130°C)
 Thermofixation (190–210°C for 30–60 sec)
Padding recipe:
 Disperse dye X g/L
 Dispersing agent 2–4 g/L
 Thickener (alginate) 0.5 to 1 % or as required (or, other anti-migration agent)
 Wetting agent 0.5 g/L
Reduction cleaning (RC):
 Sodium hydrosulfite 1–2 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 1–2 g/L
 Temperature 70–80°C
 Time
 15–20 min
Followed by:
 Hot wash
 Neutralization with acetic acid

3.4 Transfer printing

Dye is transferred from paper to fabric by heat sublimation
 Temperature: 190–210°C
 Time: 20–40 seconds

Applications:
 Apparel (polyester garments)
 Home textiles
 Automotive textiles
 Sportswear

Environmental and safety aspects:

 Avoid carrier dyeing where possible
 Proper effluent treatment for dispersants
 Use eco-friendly, APEO-free auxiliaries
 Low-reduction clearing formulations

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 94 -

Vat Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Vat dyes are a class of water-insoluble dyes mainly used for cellulosic fibers, especially cotton, and
to a limited extent for viscose, linen, and cotton blends. These dyes are converted into a water-
soluble leuco form under alkaline reducing conditions, applied to the fiber, and then oxidized back
to their original insoluble form within the fiber structure.
Vat dyes are renowned for their excellent color fastness, particularly to washing, light, perspiration,
and chlorine, making them ideal for heavy-duty and high-performance textiles.
Historical background:
 Vat dyes were first developed in the late 19th century, with Indigo being the earliest and
most important vat dye. The name “vat dye” originates from the traditional wooden vats
used for indigo reduction.
Properties:
Advantages:
 Outstanding wash fastness
 Excellent light fastness
 Very good chlorine resistance
 Suitable for workwear and denim
 High shade stability
Disadvantages:
 Complex dyeing process
 Use of strong alkali and reducing agents
 Higher processing cost
 Environmental concerns (hydrosulfite usage)
Suitable fibers:
 Cotton
 Viscose rayon
 Linen
 Modal
Note: Vat dyes have poor affinity for protein and synthetic fibers.

1. Chemical nature and classification

1.1 Chemical structure

Vat dyes are typically based on:

 Anthraquinone
 Indigoid
 Thioindigo
 Carbazole
These structures contain carbonyl (>C=O) groups, which are responsible for:
 Reduction to leuco form
 Subsequent oxidation to insoluble pigment inside the fiber

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 95 -

1.2 Classification of Vat dyes

Vat dyes are classified based on dyeing behaviour and application temperature

Class type:
 IK Type Cold dyeing vat dyes (Indigo)
 IW Type Medium temperature dyeing (Vat Blue 4)
 IN Type High temperature dyeing (Vat Black 25)

2. Reducing and oxidizing agents

2.1 Reducing agents

 Sodium hydrosulfite (Na₂S₂O₄)
 Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate (Rongalite)

2.2 Oxidizing agents

 Hydrogen peroxide
 Sodium perborate
 Air oxidation
 Potassium dichromate (limited use)

3. Dyeing methods

3.1 Principle of Vat dyeing

The vat dyeing process involves three main stages:

Reduction (Vatting):
 Insoluble vat dye to make soluble leuco compound
Exhaustion / Impregnation:
 Leuco dye absorbed by fiber in alkaline medium while dyeing.
Oxidation:
 By removing Na2S2O4, leuco compound becomes original insoluble dye, molecules join
again, trapped in fiber, fixation occur.
 Air oxidation: spread/ hang fabric in open air, hydrose will evaporate in atmosphere.
Chemical oxidation: H2O2, Sodium perborate can be used.

3.2 Exhaust dyeing method (batch process)

Machines:
 Jigger
 Winch
 Jet dyeing machines
General recipe (cotton):
 Vat dye 2–6% owf
 Sodium hydroxide 1–3 g/L
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 96 -

 Sodium hydrosulfite 2–4 g/L

 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Liquor ratio 1:10 – 1:20
 Temperature 50–60°C
 Time 45–60 minutes
Process steps:
 Prepare vat (reduction of dye)
 Add fabric and run
 Rinse without air contact
 Oxidize
 Soap at boil
 Final rinse and drying

3.3 Padding (continuous) method

Common in denim dyeing and large-scale production.

Pad–oxidize method recipe:

 Vat dye 20–40 g/L
 NaOH 10–20 g/L
 Sodium hydrosulfite 10–15 g/L
 Wetting agent 1 g/L
 Pick-up 70–80%
Process sequence:
 Padding in leuco vat
 Squeezing
 Oxidation (air or chemical)
 Washing
 Soaping
 Drying

3.3.1 Pad–steam method

Used for deep shades and uniform penetration.

 Steaming temperature: 100–105°C

 Steaming time: 30–60 seconds

3.4 Indigo dyeing (special Vat dye process)

Indigo dyeing is mainly used for denim fabrics in rope form.

Indigo recipe (rope dyeing):

 Indigo 2–4 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide 1–2 g/L
 Sodium hydrosulfite 2–3 g/L
 Temperature 30–40°C
Multiple dips and oxidation cycles are used to build shade depth.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 97 -

3.5 Soaping and after-treatment

Soaping removes unfixed dye, surface pigments

Recipe:
 Soap / Detergent 2–3 g/L
 Sodium carbonate 1 g/L
 Temperature 95–100°C
 Time 15–20 minutes

Fastness properties:
 Wash fastness Excellent (4–5)
 Light fastness Very good to excellent
 Rubbing fastness Good to excellent
 Chlorine fastness Excellent

Applications:
 Denim and jeans
 Workwear and uniforms
 Bed linens
 Towels
 Industrial textiles

Environmental considerations:
 High alkali load
 Use of hydrosulfite
 High water consumption
 Eco-friendly Alternatives
 Glucose-based reducing agents
 Electrochemical reduction
 Low-sulfite vat systems

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 98 -

Azoic Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Azoic dyes, also known as ingrain dyes, are dyes that are formed directly inside the fiber by a
chemical reaction between two components:
 Coupling component (Naphthol or coupling base)
 Diazo component (Diazonium salt)
These are not ready made colors, the color is developed within the textile material by an azo
coupling reaction, forming an insoluble azo dye inside the fiber structure. This makes azoic dyes
especially suitable for cellulosic fibers, particularly cotton. Have good washing and light fastness
but poor rubbing fastness.

Fibers suitable for Azoic dyeing:

 Cotton Excellent
 Viscose Excellent
 Linen Good
 Silk Limited
 Wool Not recommended
 Polyester Not suitable
Azoic dyes are mainly used for cellulosic fibers.

1. Chemistry of Azoic dyes

1.1 Azo group

The fundamental chromophore in azoic dyes is the azo linkage:
 -N = N-
This linkage connects two aromatic rings, creating strong color due to extensive conjugation.

1.2 Components

(a) Coupling components (Naphthols):

 Naphthol AS
 Naphthol AS-G
 Naphthol AS-B
 Naphthol AS-OL
These are water-insoluble but are made soluble in alkaline medium.

(b) Diazo components (Fast Bases):

 Fast Red B
 Fast Blue BB
 Fast Black K
 Fast Orange GC
These are aromatic amines converted into diazonium salts under acidic and cold conditions.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 99 -

2. Application process
This is a 4-step process that creates insoluble dyes directly on the fabric, involving naphtholation,
diazotization, and coupling. First, fabric is treated with a naphthol (coupling component) solution.
Next, a separate aromatic amine (base) is converted into a reactive diazonium salt in an acidic
solution. Finally, the naphthol-treated fabric is immersed in the diazonium salt solution, causing the
two components to react and form the insoluble azo dye within the fiber.

Step 1: Naphtholation
(Padding or Exhaust)
The fabric is impregnated with a water-soluble naphthol solution. (Fixation purpose)
Typical naphthol bath recipe:
 Naphthol AS 2–5 g/L
 Caustic soda (NaOH) 1–2 g/L
 Turkey Red Oil 1–2 g/L
 Wetting agent 0.5–1 g/L
 Liquor ratio 1:10
 Temperature 30–40°C
 Time 20–30 minutes
 Glaber salt (or salt) 1-- to 3 Use if naptholation is weak.
Purpose:
 NaOH dissolves naphthol
 TRO acts as emulsifier and penetrant

Dip fabrics into solution 20 to 30 min. Squeeze or pad

Step 2: Diazotization (Base)

Making base separately for color compound creation, the base remains color less, color appears
on fabric when dip.
Diazotization recipe:
 Fast base 1–4 g/L
 Hydrochloric acid 2–3 mL/L
 Sodium nitrite 1–2 g/L
 Temperature 0–5°C
 Time 10–15 minutes
(Put sodium nitrate as dropping, the reaction with HCL will form Nitric acid (HNO3), and the
reaction of nitric acid with base will form "diazonium salt" (the color giving compound). But the
solution is still color less))
Preparation for coupling addition recipe:
 Sodium acetate 5–10 g/L
 Temperature 10–15°C
 Time 10–20 minutes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 100 -

Step 3: Coupling (color development)

The fabric, which has already been treated with the naphthol (step 1), is now immersed in the cold
diazonium salt solution (step 2).
The diazonium compound and the naphthol react in an electrophilic substitution reaction. This
forms an insoluble azo dye molecule that is permanently bonded inside the fiber, creating the color
immediately.

Step 4: Soaping
Example recipe for soaping:
 Soap 2 to 3 g/l
 Soda ash 1 to 2 g/l
 Temperature 60–70°C
 Time 10 min
Wash and dry

Advantages of Azoic dyes:

 Brilliant and deep shades
 Excellent wash fastness
 Dye formed inside fiber (ingrain)
 Suitable for cold dyeing
 Economical for cotton
Limitations of Azoic dyes:
 Complex, multi-step process
 Use of hazardous chemicals (nitrites, acids)
 Limited shade range (poor blues/greens)
 Environmental and health concerns
 Restricted in many countries due to azo amine regulations

Industrial applications:
 Cotton yarn dyeing
 Piece dyeing of cotton fabrics
 Traditional printing (Bandhani, Datik)
 Denim effects (limited)

Environmental and safety concerns:

 Some azoic dyes can release carcinogenic aromatic amines. Regulations such as:
 EU REACH
 OEKO-TEX® Standard 100 restrict certain azo dyes in textiles.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 101 -

Pigment Dyes Dyeing

Introduction
Pigment dyes (commonly referred to as textile pigments) are insoluble colorants used extensively
in textile dyeing and printing. Unlike other dye classes, pigments have no affinity for textile fibers
and therefore require a binder to fix them onto the fabric surface.
Pigments are widely used because of their simplicity of application, versatility across fibers, cost-
effectiveness, and excellent fastness properties when properly applied.

Chemical nature:
 Pigments are insoluble organic or inorganic compounds
 Do not dissolve in water or organic solvents
 Exist as fine solid particles
 Remain on the surface of the fiber, held by a polymeric binder film
Chemistry:
Organic pigment:
 Azo, phthalocyanine, quinacridone
Inorganic pigments:
 Titanium dioxide, iron oxide, chromium oxide
Classification:
Based on Origin:
 Organic pigments
o Bright shades, good color strength
 Inorganic pigments
o Dull shades, excellent light and heat stability
Based on application form:
 Aqueous pigment dispersions
 Micro-encapsulated pigments
 High-solid pigment pastes
Characteristics of pigment dyes:
 Advantages
o Suitable for all fibers (cotton, polyester, blends, viscose, nylon)
o No washing-off required
o Simple process control
o Low water consumption
o Good light and wash fastness
o Ideal for printing and continuous dyeing
 Limitations
o Fabric handle may become harsh
o Lower rubbing fastness if binder is insufficient
o Limited shade brightness compared to reactive dyes
o Poor penetration (surface coloration)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 102 -

1. Role of binders and auxiliaries

Binder is the most critical component in pigment dyeing. Forms a film on fabric surface, entraps
pigment particles, provides wash, rub, and abrasion fastness
Types of binders:
 Acrylic binders
 Styrene-butadiene binders
 Self-crosslinking binders
Auxiliaries Used:
 Thickener
 Softener
 Fixer
 Catalyst (for curing)
 Anti-migrating agent
 Wetting and dispersing agents

2. Methods of dyeing
Application of pigment is simplest than others, Pad > Dry > Cure. (Most Common) No need of
rinsing or washing. Only can as open width form, no rope form.

2.1 Pad–dry–cure method

Machines:
Continues machines: Thermosol, stenter or any pad dry machine, etc.
Process Steps:
Padding
Drying
Curing
Example recipe:
Water 85%
Liquor Ammonia 1% to maintain PH
Urea 1% stabilizer
Binder/Soft Binder 5% pigment binder
Thickener 0.5% thinker of past, (PDN to reduce thickness)
Anti-Foaming Agent 0.30% anti-foam
Softener 1% for soft feel, fixing agent, very on dyes and shad
Fixer 1.5% fixing agent, more or less quantity can create problem
Pigment Dye 3% as per shad

2.2 Curing

Curing in curing chamber:

 Temperature 110 to 130 c (dry heat)
 Time 5 to 7 mint.
Mechanism:
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 103 -

 Binder undergoes cross-linking

 Forms a three-dimensional polymer network
 Physically locks pigment particles
 Enhances durability and fastness

Fastness properties of pigment dyeing:

 Wash fastness Very good
 Light fastness Excellent
 Dry rubbing Good
 Wet rubbing Moderate
 Perspiration Good
Applications of pigment dyes:
 Home textiles (bed sheets, curtains)
 Upholstery fabrics
 Denim and garments
 Workwear
 T-shirts and casual clothing
 Textile printing (major share)

Environmental aspects:
 Low water usage
 No salt or alkali required
 No dye-fiber chemical reaction
 Reduced effluent load
 Increasing use of formaldehyde-free binders

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 104 -

Chapter (6

PRINTING

Introduction of Printing

Textile Design

Method of Printing

Style of Printing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 105 -

Introduction of Printing

Introduction
Textile printing is the process of applying color in definite patterns or designs onto textile materials
such as fibers, yarns, fabrics, or garments. Unlike dyeing, where the entire fabric is uniformly
colored, printing produces localized coloration with high precision. It is a key value-addition
process in the textile industry, contributing significantly to aesthetics, fashion trends, and market
differentiation.

1. History of textile printing

Textile printing is one of the oldest forms of decorative art and industrial technology, evolving from
simple hand-applied patterns to highly automated digital systems. Its history reflects cultural
exchange, technological innovation, and changing fashion and economic needs.
Origins and early beginnings (prehistoric to 500 BCE):
 The earliest evidence of textile decoration dates back to prehistoric times, when natural
pigments were applied to fabrics using fingers, sticks, or rudimentary stamps. In India,
China, and Egypt found printed and dyed textiles as early as 3000–2000 BCE.
 In Ancient India, resist-printing techniques using wax or mud were practiced. China
developed early block [Link] ancient Egypt, linen fabrics were printed with mineral and
plant-based pigments for ceremonial and domestic use.
Classical and ancient civilizations (500 BCE – 500 CE):
 India became a major center for textile printing, particularly cotton printing using wooden
blocks and vegetable dyes such as indigo and madder. Persian artisans refined floral and
geometric motifs, influencing designs across Central Asia. Roman and Greek cultures used
patterned textiles, though weaving and embroidery were more common.
Medieval period (500 – 1500 CE):
 Textile printing flourished in India, especially in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan,
producing high-quality calico and chintz. Islamic civilizations advanced printing techniques,
emphasizing intricate geometric and arabesque designs due to religious restrictions on
figurative art. Japan developed resist-printing methods such as shibori, involving tying,
stitching, or folding fabric before dyeing. In Europe, textile printing was limited; patterned
fabrics were largely imported from Asia and the Middle East.
Renaissance and early modern period (1500 – 1750):
 Increased trade brought Indian printed cottons (chintz and calico) to Europe, creating high
demand. European printers began imitating Asian designs using hand block printing. In
France, England, and the Netherlands, printing workshops were established. The use of
mordants (alum, iron salts) improved color fixation and wash fastness.
Industrial revolution (1750 – 1850):
 This period marked a turning point in textile printing history.
 1750: Introduction of copperplate printing. 1783: Roller (cylinder) printing was invented by
Thomas Bell in England. Development of mechanized block printing increased speed and
consistency. Synthetic chemical mordants improved color brilliance and durability. Textile
printing became a factory-based industry rather than a craft.
Chemical and technological advancements (1850 – 1950):

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 106 -

 Discovery of synthetic dyes (e.g., mauveine in 1856) revolutionized textile printing. Aniline
and azo dyes replaced many natural dyes due to brighter shades and lower costs. Screen
printing evolved from stencil methods to more refined techniques.
 Introduction of flat screen printing and later rotary screen printing. Improved understanding
of fiber chemistry allowed better dye–fiber bonding.
Modern industrial era (1950 – 2000):
 Rotary screen printing became the dominant method for high-volume textile production.
Development of reactive, disperse, and pigment printing systems tailored to different fibers.
Automation increased productivity and reduced labour dependency. Environmental
awareness led to better control of effluents and chemical usage.
Digital and contemporary textile printing (2000 – present):
 Digital inkjet printing emerged as a revolutionary technology. Enables direct printing from
computer designs without screens or plates. Ideal for short runs, customization, and rapid
prototyping. Uses specialized inks: reactive, disperse, acid, and pigment inks. Integration
with CAD, color management systems, and sustainable practices. Focus on eco-friendly
inks, waterless processes, and reduced waste.

2. Aspects of textile printing

Mainly there are three aspects of textile printing

 Textile design
o Creation of patterns to decorate the fabric
 Methods of printing
o Medium of printing
 Style of printing
o Chemistry of printing

Objectives:
 To produce decorative and functional designs
 To achieve sharp patterns and color brilliance
 To provide variety, customization, and fashion appeal
 To improve commercial value of textile products
 To impart functional effects (antimicrobial, UV protection, water repellence, etc.)
Principles:
 Selective application of color
 Use of thickened dye or pigment paste
 Fixation of color through heat or chemical reaction
 Removal of unfixed components by washing
 Retention of fabric handle and strength

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 107 -

Textile Design
Introduction
Textile design in the textile printing industry refers to the creation, development, and application of
decorative patterns, motifs, and color arrangements onto textile substrates using various printing
techniques. It combines art, technology, material science, and market trends to produce fabrics
that meet functional, aesthetic, and commercial requirements.
In industrial textile printing, design is not only an artistic activity but also a technical process that
must consider fiber type, fabric structure, printing method, dyes or pigments, production speed,
cost, and end-use performance.
Role of textile design in printing:
 Textile design plays a central role in:
o Enhancing aesthetic value of fabrics
o Creating brand identity and fashion trends
o Improving market competitiveness
o Supporting functional and technical textiles
o Ensuring compatibility with printing processes
In modern industry, design decisions directly affect print quality, color fastness, production
efficiency, and sustainability.

[Link] and types of design

1.1 Motif (design unit)

A motif is the basic decorative element of a textile design.
It may include:
 Floral
 Geometric
 Abstract
 Paisley
 Ethnic or traditional symbols
 Digital or photographic images
Motifs are designed considering repeat size, clarity, and print resolution.

1.2 Pattern repeat

Pattern repeat is the method of arranging motifs across the fabric surface, according to the method
of printing. Example: a rotary cylinder (screen) has circumference size limit which considered as
repeat, which can be divided into other ways of repeats.
Ways of repeats:
 Straight repeat
 Half-drop repeat
 Mirror (reflect) repeat
 Brick repeat
 All-over repeat
 Placement or engineered design

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 108 -

1.3 Color in textile printing design

Color is a critical design element and must be selected based on:
 Fiber type (cotton, polyester, silk, blends)
 Printing method
 End-use requirements
 Fashion trends
 Fastness properties
Color contrast, depth, and tone must align with dye chemistry and fixation behaviour.

1.4 Scale and proportion

Scale refers to the size of motifs, while proportion relates to balance between elements. Proper
scaling is essential for:
 Apparel (small vs. large prints)
 Home textiles
 Furnishing fabrics
 Industrial textiles

1.5 Types of textile designs

Traditional designs:
 Floral and paisley patterns
 Ethnic and cultural motifs
 Regional styles (e.g., Mughal, Ajrak, Batik)
 Hand-inspired industrial prints
Contemporary and fashion designs:
 Abstract and geometric designs
 Minimalist patterns
 Digital art–based designs
 Trend-driven seasonal designs
Functional and technical designs:
 Camouflage patterns
 High-visibility designs
 Branding and logos
 Smart and interactive printed designs

1.6 Relationship between design and printing techniques

Block printing:
 Simple motifs
 Limited colors
 Bold outlines
 Traditional appearance
Screen printing:
 Suitable for medium to complex designs
 Limited color layers

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 109 -

 High production volumes

 Good color opacity
Rotary screen printing:
 Continuous all-over designs
 High-speed production
 Consistent repeats
 Industrial mass production
Digital textile printing:
 High-resolution images
 Unlimited colors
 Short runs and customization
 Photographic and engineered designs
Transfer printing:
 Mainly for polyester
 Sharp designs
 Bright colors
 Precise placement

2. Textile design process

2.1 Market research / analysis and creation

Normally, from byer’s end.

Design development starts with:

 Fashion forecasting
 Consumer preferences
 Color trend analysis
 Competitor analysis
 Target market identification
Concept development:
 Theme or inspiration board
 Color palette
 Mood and story
 End-use purpose
Design creation:
 Hand sketching
 CAD software (Photoshop, Illustrator, Ramset III,Ned-Graphics, Textronics)
 Digital artwork scanning

This is for the new concept, therefor byer can also send an already printed fabric swatch to copy
the design. A final decided design and product information delivered to the industry.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 110 -

2.2 Design adaptation and process for printing

Process in industry

First consideration:
 Fabric width
 Printing method
 Color limitations
 Registration accuracy
 Resolution requirements
 Fabric GSM
 Weave or knit structure
 Surface texture
 Shrinkage and dimensional stability
 For example:
o Cotton allows detailed reactive prints
o Polyester favours disperse and transfer prints
o Blends require balanced design and chemistry
Color separation:
 Setting the design dimension repeat and layout.
 Tracing of design on paper or film
o Traditional method of tracing by hand with brush and pens, etc.
 Tracing and separation on CAD software
o Modern method for conventional and digital printing.
Engraving:
 Engraving of block and roller print is very limited, now a days.
 Flatbed or table screen preparation
 Rotary screen preparation
 Digital printing doesn’t need engraving, design directly goes to printing
Sampling and approval:
 Strike-offs or lab samples
 Color matching
 Design corrections
 Sent to customer approval

Future trends in textile design:

 AI-assisted design generation
 Smart and interactive printed textiles
 3D and illusion-based prints
 Personalized and on-demand printing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 111 -

Methods of Printing

Introduction
Textile printing began with ancient civilizations using simple tools like stencils and woodblocks for
patterns, with early evidence in India, China (pre-220 AD), Egypt (300 AD), and Peru. Woodblock
printing spread from the East, becoming popular in Europe via Islamic influence by the 12th
century. The Industrial Revolution revolutionized it with mechanized roller printing (late 18th
century) and screen printing, while modern techniques like digital printing continue the evolution
from these foundational methods.
Here is only introduction of Screen printing, Rotary printing and Digital printing.

Classification of textile printing methods:

 Traditional (conventional) printing methods
 Modern / industrial Printing Methods
 Digital Printing

1. Traditional printing methods

3.1 Block printing

Block printing is one of the oldest textile printing methods.

A carved wooden or metal block carrying the design is dipped into printing paste and manually
pressed onto the fabric.

Features:
 Handcrafted appearance
 Limited repeat accuracy
 Suitable for small-scale production
Applications:
 Cotton and silk fabrics
 Ethnic, artisanal, and decorative textiles

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 112 -

Advantages:
 Low capital cost
 Unique aesthetic value
Limitations:
 Labor-intensive
 Low production speed
 Limited color registration

3.2 Roller printing (copper roller printing)

Principle:
 Engraved copper rollers apply printing paste continuously onto fabric running over a printing
machine.
Features:
 High-speed continuous printing
 Each color requires a separate roller
Applications:
 Large-scale cotton and blended fabric production
Advantages:
 High productivity
 Excellent color sharpness
Limitations:
 High initial cost
 Design change is expensive and time-consuming

2. Modern / industrial printing methods

2.1 Flat screen printing

Two ways:
 Hand table screen printing
 Flatbed screen printing machine.

Screen preparation for both techniques is bit same, but flatbed machine can handle larger frames.
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 113 -

Principle:
 A flat screen with open design areas allows printing paste to pass through onto fabric using
a squeegee.
Process steps:
 Screen preparation
 Fabric placement
 Paste application
 Squeegee action
 Printing and fixation
Applications:
 Apparel fabrics
 Home textiles
Advantages:
 High design flexibility
 Suitable for small and medium production
Limitations:
 Lower speed compared to rotary screen printing

2.1.1 Flatbed engraving

A nylon mesh fabric stretched/glued on a wooden or metal frame. Coating the mesh with photo
Emulsion. Design exposing by light, design can be in the form of plastic film or by the digital
exposure. Developing the screen by washing (the light hardens the all area except design and the
design area washed away. Now the design area mesh opened.

Machines:
 Exposing machine
 Stretching machine
 Coating machine
 Dryer (polymerize) chamber
Flatbed screen emulsion:
(1kg formula)
 Apritone (45) 500 g
 PVA (217) 100 g
 binder 10 g
 wood glue 50g
 any color
Flatbed stripper:
(1) (2)
Sulfuric acid 1kg Caustic soda 1kg
Bleaching powder 2kg Bleaching powder 2kg
Water 1kg Water 2kg
Flatbed hardener:
 hydro chloric acid 1 kg
 water 20 kg

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 114 -

2.2 Rotary machine printing

Rotary machine is a high-speed continuous printing method, average production is 60 to 70
mtr/min. It uses nickel screen cylinders (either printing plates or screens) to transfer images onto
fabric. It contrasts with flatbed printing and is known for efficiency, high volume, and versatility of
textile applications. High setup cost, requires skilled operation.

2.2.1 Machine units

Tension roller:
 Control tension of the fabric.
Guider:
 Control fabric direction.
Pressure roller:
 Fabric pressing on the blanket surface as it is not displaced.
Blanket:
 Glue is added on the blanket surface as a result fabric is firmly attached with
the blanket & carrying the fabric forward under the screen.
Glue tray:
 Glue solution is supplied from the glue tray.
Washer:
 Residual paste on the blanket is removed by water spray.
Brush:
 Brush assist to remove residual color paste.
Screen unit:
 Rotary screen is setting this unit (general capacity 12 screens).
Conveyor:
 Fabric conveyed to the curing unit by conveyor.
Curing unit:
 After printing fabric is dried.
Plaiter:
 Printing fabric is delivered on the trolley by plaiter.

Principle:
 Cylindrical screens rotate in synchronization with fabric movement, applying paste
continuously.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 115 -

2.2.2 Rotary engraving

Machines:
 Exposing machine
o Wax jet, ink jet, laser engraving (burning with laser), laser exposing, DLE (digital light
exposing), blue ray exposing
 Coating machine
o Single rubber coating, double rubber coating (for thin coating)
 Climatize chamber
 Developing machine
 Polymerize chamber
o Curing- 250c-50m rounding- 250c 60m
 Gluer (End ring) machine
o Glue curing- 90c 5m
 Screen Stripping machine
Screen repeats:
 64cm, 81.9cm, 91.4cm
Screen mesh:
 40, 60, 80, 125, 135, 155, 165,195

2.2.3 Engraving chemicals

Some Stork brand:

 SCR 100 Universal engraving emulsion, yellow - brown
 SCR 110 Universal engraving emulsion, blue - green
 SCR 101 Sensitizer for SCR 100/110
 SCR 52S One component lacquer for retouching, brown
 SCR 53/53C Two component end ring adhesive
 SCR 253 One component infra-red end ring adhesive
 SCR 30 Liquid for removing end rings
 SCR 40 Screen cleaner for removing printing paste
 SCR 42 Thermoplastic stripper
Recipe for exposing emulsion (50 kg formula):
 Apritone (45) 25 kg
 PVA (217) 1 kg
 water 5 kg
 Robin Neel as need
 hydro chloric acid 50 drop
Screen stripper (100 kg formula):
 Hydro chloric acid 10 kg
 Formic acid 20 kg
 Phenol 40 kg
 Methylene 30 kg

Degreaser: Detergent + Hydrogen peroxide + Methylene

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 116 -

3. Digital printing
Digital textile printing (DTP) is a modern printing technology in which designs are printed directly
onto textile substrates using computer-controlled inkjet systems. Unlike conventional printing
methods such as screen, roller, or block printing, digital printing does not require screens or
engraving. Designs are transferred from a digital file directly to fabric, enabling high design
flexibility, rapid production, and reduced resource consumption.

Method types of digital printing:

 Ink-jet printing
o Ink is sprayed directly onto fabric (cotton, silk, etc.) using inkjet heads.
 Transfer printing
o A mirrored design is printed on special transfer paper with dye-sublimation inks, then
heat-pressed onto polyester fabrics.

3.1 Direct to fabric (DTF) printing

(Ink-jet printing) this is most common digital textile printing.

Principle:
 The fundamental principle of printing is inkjet technology, where microscopic droplets of ink
are precisely ejected from print heads onto the textile surface in a controlled pattern.
Basic workflow:
 Design creation (CAD software)
 Color management (ICC profiles, RIP software)
 Fabric pre-treatment
 Inkjet printing
 Fixation of dyes/pigments
 Post-treatment and finishing
 Each step is critical for achieving color accuracy, durability, and fabric performance.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 117 -

3.1.1 Head technology

“Drop-on-Demand (DOD)”
The most widely used technology in textile printing.
 Piezoelectric Inkjet
o Uses piezo crystals to eject ink droplets. High precision and durability, most common
in textile printing machines

3.1.2 Printing machines

Machine configurations:
 Single-pass printers
o High speed, industrial production
 Multi-pass printers
o High quality, lower speed
Key components:
 Print heads (Kyocera, Epson, Ricoh, Konica Minolta)
 Ink supply system
 Fabric transport system
 Drying unit
 RIP and color management software
Typical specifications:
 Resolution: 600–2400 dpi
 Printing width: 1.6 m to 3.2 m
 Speed: 30–90 m/min (single-pass)
 Ink colors: CMYK + light and special colors

Example of some renowned brands:

 MS
o Jpk evo. 32 heads 8000 m/24hrs
o Mini Lario. 64 heads 18000 m/24hrs
o Lario single pass. 40000 m/hrs
 Efi Reggiani
o Power 32 heads. 9000 m
o Colors. 24 heads. 5000 m
o Bolt up to 28 head per color 45000
 Spgprints
o Jasmine 32 head 860 m²/h
o Pike. 6 to 9 station 43 heads. 60 m/min
 Atexco (vega series)
o 3180 dt 8 to 32 heads 8000 m/24hrs
o Vega one 192, 256, 384 heads. 40000 to 70000 m/24hrs

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 118 -

3.1.3 Printing process

The most common digital textile printing today is on cotton with reactive ink.

Pre-treatment:
 Before printing a coat of dye absorption/fixing agents needed on mercerized fabric.
o Padding on stenter machine
o New technology is coming with inline coating system
Recipe for coating:
 Alginate 10%
 Resist Salt 1.8%
 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 5%
 Padder Pressure 2 bar
 Temperature 100 c
(Just dry, No Extra heat)
Printing:
 Printing with inkjet printer and drying.
Steaming ageing:
 Curing, ageing with stream in ager at 100c for 5 to 7 min
Washing:
 To remove unfixed dyes
 Soaping
Drying and finishing

3.1.4 Other inks

Disperse inks:
 Used for polyester and acetate
 Direct disperse printing
o Need thermo fixation, and washing unlike sublimation ink
 High color strength and durability
 Fixation by heat (thermo fixation)
Acid inks:
 Used for silk, wool, nylon
 Provide brilliant colors and soft handle
 Require steaming and washing
Pigment inks:
 Suitable for all fiber types
 Binder-based fixation
 Minimal post-treatment
 Slightly inferior hand feel compared to dyes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 119 -

3.2 Sublimation digital textile printing

Sublimation digital textile printing (conventionally called “Transfer Printing”) is a form of digital
printing where specially formulated sublimation dyes are printed from a digital file onto a substrate
(usually paper) and then transferred by heat and pressure into polyester-based fabrics or polymer-
coated items. The key aspect of the process is that the dye becomes part of the fibers at the
molecular level, rather than sitting on top of the surface, producing durable, vibrant, and soft-
feeling prints
Historically, transfer printing started first as printing ceramics in 19th century. The name
“sublimation” comes from the scientific phase change in which the solid dye is thought to convert
directly into a gas without entering a liquid state, although in reality there can be some liquid phase
during transfer. Transfer printing on fabrics was exist before the digital technology emerged, the
paper for transfer printing were printed on printing press.
Early digital textile printing late 1980s:
 Digital textile printing began as inkjet technologies were adapted from paper printing to
textiles, initially aiming to replace analog methods like screen printing on fabrics.
Rise of dye-sublimation early 1990s:
 The development of dye-sublimation printers for textiles marked a major milestone. These
could use low-energy sublimation inks and direct disperse inks to produce prints that
bonded more effectively with textile fibers.
 Initially, direct dye-sublimation was more common on transfer papers rather than directly
onto textiles, but advancements soon enabled high-quality direct-to-fabric sublimation
printing, particularly on synthetic fabrics.
 Over time this technology has evolved toward higher quality, faster throughput, and larger
format printing, making it widely used in fashion, sportswear, décor, and large-scale textile
graphics

3.2.1 The science behind sublimation

The sublimation concept:

In printing, sublimation refers to a process where heat and pressure cause solid dye particles to
turn into gas and then bond with polyester fibers. Although strictly speaking some liquid phase can
occur, the resulting print is durable and integrated into the fabric.
Why polyester?
Sublimation works best on polymers like polyester or fabrics with a polyester coating. These
materials have open polymer structures that allow gaseous dye molecules to penetrate and lock in
place as the material cools.
Advantages:
 Suitable for photographic quality images, with rich colors and sharp detail.
 Beolor is embedded within the fibers, prints do not crack, peel, or fade like.
 The printed area feels the same as unprinted fabric since no thick ink layer is left.
 Eco-Friendly and efficient, as compared to traditional screen printing.
 Digital workflow makes printing small batches or customized designs cost-effective.
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 120 -

3.2.2 Process of printing

Design preparation:
 A digital design is created or adjusted in software.
 Colors and resolution are optimized for print quality on textiles.
Printing onto transfer Paper:
 The design is printed using a sublimation inkjet printer onto sublimation transfer paper.
 The printer uses specialized sublimation dyes instead of regular inks.
Heat transfer:
 The printed paper is placed on the fabric and run through a heat press or calendar machine.
 Heat (~180–200 °C) and pressure cause the dye to transform into gas and embed into the
fibers of the polyester fabric.
Cooling:
 As the fabric cools, the pores close and lock the dye inside, producing a permanent and
vibrant print.

Alternative direct method:

Some machines print sublimation inks directly onto fabric and then heat-fix them, bypassing
transfer paper entirely.
Wikipedia

Example of some sublimation printer brands:

 Epson F-series (f9570, f6470)
 Mimaki Ts100 - 1600
 Mutoh Expert jet series (1642 wr pro, Value jet)
 Color-Jet sublex press plus
 Atexco. 3180P

Common applications:
 Fashion & Apparel
 Sportswear, activewear, scarves, leggings.
 Home Textiles
 Curtains, upholstery, cushions.
 Promotional & Graphic Fabrics
 Flags, banners, trade show graphics.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 121 -

Style of Printing
Introduction
In textile processing, style of printing refers to the manner in which color is applied to the fabric to
produce a design or pattern, depending on the relationship between the dyed background and the
printed areas. Unlike printing methods (such as screen or roller printing), printing styles define how
the design interacts with the ground color of the fabric. The selection of a printing style influences
color effects, fabric appearance, production cost, and end use.

Types of printing styles:

 Direct printing
o Printing with reactive dyes
o Printing with disperse dyes
o Printing with pigments
o Printing with Azoic dyes
 Discharge and resist printing
 Special printing
o Burnout printing
o Duplex (double) printing
o Metallic printing
o Flock printing
o Puff printing

Each style has its own principles, chemical requirements, and applications.

1. Direct printing style

Direct printing is the simplest and most commonly used printing style, in which colored print paste
is applied directly onto a white or light-colored fabric to form a design. Fixation occurs through
steaming, curing, or heat treatment depending on the dye class.

Dyes Used:
 Reactive dyes (cotton, viscose)
 Disperse dyes (polyester)
 Pigment dyes (all fibers)
 Acid dyes (silk, wool, nylon)
 Azoic dyes (cotton) not very common

1.1 Printing with reactive dyes

Reactive dye printing is one of the most important textile printing methods for cellulosic fibers such
as cotton, viscose, linen, and modal. Reactive dyes form covalent bonds with the fiber, resulting in
excellent wash fastness, bright shades, and sharp print definition. Unlike pigment printing (which
relies on binders), reactive dye printing becomes an integral part of the fiber structure.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 122 -

Reactive dyes contain reactive functional groups that chemically bond with the –OH groups of
cellulose:
Common reactive systems:
 Monochlorotriazine (MCT)
 Dichlorotriazine (DCT)
 Vinyl sulphone (VS)
 Bi-functional and tri-functional dyes
Bond formation:
 Under alkaline conditions, reactive dyes form covalent ether bonds with cellulose:
o Cell–OH + Dye–Reactive group → Cell–O–Dye + By-product
This permanent bonding gives:
 Excellent wash fastness
 Good rubbing fastness
 High color brilliance

1.1.1 Printing

Pretreatment requirements:
 Fabric must be mercerized
 Uniformly absorbent
 Fabric Conditions
 pH: 6.0–7.0
 Moisture content: 6–8%
 Even surface, no creases
Printing thickeners used:
 Sodium alginate (most preferred)
 Low-substitution starch ethers
 Synthetic thickeners (limited use)
Note: Sodium alginate is ideal because it does not react with reactive dyes.
Typical recipe (per kg printing paste):
 Reactive dye 10–50 g
 Sodium alginate (3–5%) 400–600 g (Thickening agent)
 Urea 50–150 g (Moisture retention, dye solubility)
 Sodium bicarbonate or soda ash 10–25 g (Activates dye–fiber reaction)
 Resist salt / Glauber salt 0–50 g (Controls migration and penetration)
 Water Balance to 1 kg
Printing paste preparation procedure:
 Dissolve reactive dye in warm water
 Prepare alginate stock paste separately
 Add urea and mix thoroughly
 Add dye solution slowly with stirring
 Add alkali just before printing
 Adjust viscosity and pH (10–11)
Printing methods used:
 Flat-bed screen printing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 123 -

 Rotary screen printing

Steam fixation parameter:
 Typical Value
 Temperature
 100–105 °C
 Time
 8–12 minutes
 Saturated Steam
Hot air fixation is less common due to lower fixation efficiency
Typical washing sequence:
 Cold rinse
 Hot wash (60–70 °C)
 Soaping (1–2 g/L non-ionic detergent)
 Hot rinse
 Cold rinse
 Neutralization (acetic acid)
 Drying

1.2 Printing with disperse dye

Disperse dye printing is a textile printing process mainly used for hydrophobic synthetic fibers.
Especially:
 Polyester (PET) – primary application
 Acetate & Triacetate
 Nylon (limited use)
 Polyester blends (PES/cotton, PES/viscose)
Disperse dyes are non-ionic, sparingly water-soluble dyes that are applied as a fine aqueous
dispersion. During fixation, the dye sublimes or diffuses into the fiber, becoming physically trapped
within the polymer structure.

Characteristics (for printing):

 Very low solubility in water
 Applied in dispersed form using dispersing agents
 No chemical bond with fiber (physical absorption)
 Excellent wash fastness and light fastness on polyester
 Available in low-energy, medium-energy, and high-energy types
 Bright shades with good levelness and penetration

1.2.1 Printing

Polyester pre-treatment:
 Desizing (if required)
 Scouring
 Heat setting for dimensional stability
Typical scouring recipe (polyester):
 Non-ionic detergent: 2–3 g/L

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 124 -

 Soda ash: 1–2 g/L

 Temperature: 80–90°C
 Time: 20–30 min

Typical printing paste recipe:

 Disperse dye 20–60 g/kg
 Dispersing agent 5–10 g/kg
 Thickener (alginate or synthetic) 30–60 g/kg
 Binder (optional) 5–10 g/kg
 Anti-migrant 2–5 g/kg
 Defoamer As required
 Water To make 1 kg
Printing process flow:
 Preparation of print paste
 Printing (screen / rotary / digital)
 Drying (100–120°C)

1.2.2 Fixation

Thermosol (dry heat fixation):

 Temperature: 180–210°C
 Time: 30–60 seconds
o Dye sublimates and diffuses into polyester
o Advantages:
o High productivity
o Uniform shade development
High-temperature steaming (HT steam):
 Temperature: 170–180°C
 Time: 5–10 minutes
o Saturated or superheated steam
Atmospheric steaming (limited use):
 Temperature: 100–102°C
 Time: 30–45 minutes
o Mainly for acetate

1.2.3 Reduction clearing (RC)

Reduction clearing removes unfixed dye from the surface to improve fastness.

Typical reduction clearing recipe:

 Sodium hydrosulfite: 2 g/L
 Sodium hydroxide: 1 g/L
 Detergent: 1 g/L
 Temperature: 70–80°C
 Time: 15–20 minutes
o Followed by:

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 125 -

o Hot rinse
o Cold rinse
o Neutralization (acetic acid)

1.3 Printing with pigment

Pigment printing is the most widely used textile printing method in the world. Unlike other dye
classes, pigments are insoluble color particles that have no affinity for textile fibers. They are
mechanically fixed onto the fabric surface using a polymeric binder. All the fabrics types can be
printed with pigments.

Components of pigment printing paste:

 Pigment
o Provides color
o Used in dispersed fine particle form
o Typical shade depth: 1–10% (on paste)
 Binder
o Core component
o Acrylic or polyurethane based
o Provides adhesion and durability
 Thickener
o Controls viscosity
o Prevents spreading
o Common types:
o Synthetic acrylic thickener
o Emulsion thickener
 Fixer / Catalyst
o Improves binder cross-linking
o Enhances wash and rub fastness
 Softener
o Improves fabric handle
o Reduces stiffness from binder film
 Auxiliaries
o Defoamer
o Wetting agent
o Anti-migration agent
o pH buffer

1.3.1 printing

Fabric preparation:
 Desizing (for cotton)
 Scouring & bleaching
o Fabric must be:
o Clean
o Uniform absorbency
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 126 -

o Neutral pH
Typical Flat-screen / Rotary printing recipe:
 Water 90%
 Liquor ammonia 1.50% to maintain PH 6 to 7
 Urea 1%
 Binder/soft binder 2%
 Thickener 1.20%
 Anti-foaming agent 0.30%
 Softener 2%
 Fixer 2%
Step-by-step pigment printing process:
 Paste preparation
o Dissolve thickener in water
o Add binder slowly with stirring
o Add pigment dispersion
o Add fixer and softener
o Adjust viscosity and pH
o Filter pastes before printing
 Printing methods
o Flat-bed screen printing
o Rotary screen printing
Drying:
 Temperature: 100–120°C
 Purpose:
o Remove water
o Prevent smudging
o Prepare for curing
Curing (fixation):
 Temperature: 150–170°C
 Time: 5–7 minutes
 Methods:
o Hot air curing
o Infrared curing
o Stenter curing
o During curing:
o Binder cross-links
o Pigment gets permanently fixed
Post-treatment:
 No washing required
 Cooling and inspection
 Final finish as required

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 127 -

1.4 Printing with Azoic dyes

Shades obtained with Azoic dyes:

 Reds
 Brilliant red, scarlet
 Oranges
 Bright orange
 Maroons
 Deep maroon
 Blacks
 Dense black
 Browns
 Chocolate brown

Printing paste recipe:

 Naphthol AS 20–40 g/kg
 Caustic soda 5–8 g/kg
 Emulsifier 10–15 g/kg
 Thickener 500–600 g/kg
 Water Balance
After drying, fabric is passed through diazo bath.

Diazotization recipe:
 Fast base 1–4 g/L
 Hydrochloric acid 2–3 mL/L
 Sodium nitrite 1–2 g/L
 Temperature 0–5°C
Diazonium salt will develop the color. After drying need soaping .

Example recipe for soaping:

 Soap 2 to 3 g/l
 Soda ash 1 to 2 g/z
 Temperature 60–70°C
 Time 10 min
Wash and dry

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 128 -

2. Discharge and Resist printing

2.1 Discharge printing

Discharge printing is a specialized textile printing technique in which color is removed (discharged)
from a previously dyed fabric to create a pattern. Instead of adding color directly, a chemical
discharge agent destroys the original dye in selected areas. In many cases, a new color (resist
color) is simultaneously developed in the discharged areas.
This method is widely used for dark-colored fabrics, particularly cotton, where bright, clear designs
are required without affecting fabric handle.

Principle of discharge printing:

 It based on the chemical destruction of dyes that are sensitive to reducing or oxidizing
agents. The fabric is pre-dyed with a dischargeable dye. A printing paste containing a
discharge agent is applied in the desired pattern
 During steaming, the discharge agent:
o Destroys the background dye
o Either leaves a white area or develops a new color
Types of discharge printing:
 White Discharge Printing
o Produces white designs on a colored background.
 Colored Discharge Printing
o Replaces discharged color with another dye.
Suitable fabrics:
 Cotton
 Viscose (rayon)
 Linen
 Limited Use
 Silk (with care)
 Wool (special dyes and mild conditions)
Not suitable:
 Polyester (disperse dyes are discharge-resistant)
 Acrylics
Common dischargeable dyes:
 Reactive dyes (selected types)
 Direct dyes (selected)
 Vat dyes (most commonly used)
 Non-Dischargeable Dyes
 Pigment dyes
 Sulfur dyes (generally resistant)
 Most disperse dyes, but if HTHP method is not applied.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 129 -

2.1.1 Discharging agents

Sodium hydrosulphite:
 A reducing agent commonly used for discharge (bleaching). It breaks azo bonds, affective
on reactive. For reaction steaming needed. Not stable so need to use as soon as possible
after printing past preparation and steaming after printing.
Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate:
 Also known as Rongalite , is a powerful reducing (bleaching agent. Effective in Alkaline
condition.
Zinc formaldehyde sulfoxylate:
 A strong reducing (bleaching agent. Effective in acidic condition. Generally used for
synthetics, but if HTHP method is not applied. It also works on reactive and other dyes. It is
more stable than two others.
Eco-friendlier alternative:
 Thiourea dioxide

2.1.2 Printing

White discharge printing recipe (Cotton):

 Discharge agent (Rongalite C) 40–80 g/kg
 Thickener (guar gum / alginate) 40–60 g/kg
 Urea 50–100 g/kg
 Wetting agent 1–2 g/kg
 Water Balance
Colored discharge printing recipe:
 Discharge agent 40–80 g/kg
 Discharge-resistant dye 10–40 g/kg
 Thickener 40–60 g/kg
 Urea 50–100 g/kg
 Wetting agent 1–2 g/kg
 Water Balance
Note: The added dye must be resistant to the discharge agent.
Process flow of discharge printing:
 Ground dyeing
o Fabric dyed with dischargeable dye
o Proper washing and drying
 Printing
o Rotary screen printing
o Flatbed printing
 Drying
o Low temperature drying (≤100°C)
o Prevent premature discharge
 Steaming
o Temperature: 100–105°C
o Time: 8–12 minutes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 130 -

Discharge reaction occurs

 Washing and Soaping
o Cold wash
o Hot wash (60–80°C)
o Soaping to remove residues
Final drying and finishing

2.2 Resist printing

Resist printing is a textile printing technique in which a resist substance is applied to selected
areas of a fabric to prevent dye penetration during subsequent dyeing or printing processes. The
resisted areas remain undyed or lightly dyed, creating patterns in contrast with the dyed
background.
This technique is one of the oldest textile decoration methods and forms the foundation of many
traditional and modern decorative processes. Resist printing is widely used in cotton, rayon, silk,
and blends, especially with reactive, vat, and azoic dyes.

Classification of resist printing:

 Mechanical (physical) resist
o Fabric is tied, folded, stitched, or clamped. Dye penetration is physically restricted.
o Example: Tie-and-dye, bandhani, shibori
 Chemical resist
o A chemical paste is printed onto the fabric, the resist chemically blocks or destroys
the dye. Used in industrial printing.
o Example: batik, ikat

Resist print agents:

 Waxes: paraffin wax, bee wax, microcrystalline wax
 Acids: citric acid (especially for reactive), stannous chloride

2.2.1 Types of chemical resist printing

White resist printing:

A resist paste is printed on fabric, fabric is dyed afterward, printed areas remain white.
 Common Resist Chemicals:
o Wax (traditional batik)
o Fatty substances
o Alkali or acidic compounds
o Reducing agents
 Dyes Used:
o Reactive dyes
o Vat dyes
o Azoic dyes
Colored resist printing:
 Resist paste contains pigments or dyes produces colored designs on dyed background

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 131 -

 Decorative and high-value designs

Chemical destroy resist (discharge-resist):
 Resist contains chemicals that destroy or deactivate dye, used on pre-dyed fabrics
 Common in dark shades

2.2.2 Resist printing with different dye systems

Resist printing with reactive dyes:

 Typical resist paste composition:
o Thickener (alginate): 4–6%
o Resist chemical (acidic salts, urea substitutes): as required
o Water: balance
 Process:
o Print resist paste
o Dry
o Dye fabric
o Wash and soap
Batik – a classic resist printing method:
 Batik Process Steps:
o Wax application (printing or hand drawing)
o Dyeing
o Wax removal (boiling or solvent extraction)
 Re-dyeing for multicolor effects

3. Special printing

3.1 Burnout printing

Burnout printing, also known as Devore printing, is a specialty chemical printing process in which
one component of a blended fabric is selectively destroyed (burned out) to create transparent,
semi-transparent, or embossed design effects.
It is primarily used on cellulosic–synthetic blends, especially:
 Polyester / Cotton
 Polyester / Viscose
 Polyester / Rayon
 Silk / Viscose

The most common application is on velvet, pile fabrics, and sheer fashion textiles.

Principle of burnout printing:

 A burnout agent (usually an acid or oxidizing agent) is printed onto the fabric in a pattern.
 During drying and curing, the agent destroys the cellulosic fiber (cotton, viscose, rayon).
 The synthetic fiber (polyester, nylon) remains unaffected.
 The destroyed fiber is removed by washing, leaving a transparent or lace-like pattern.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 132 -

Fibers suitable for burnout printing:

 Cotton
 Viscose
 Rayon
 Linen
 Silk (controlled conditions)
Resistant fibers (remain intact):
 Polyester
 Nylon
 Acrylic
Common burnout agents:
 Sulfuric acid
o Cellulose destruction
 Aluminum chloride
o Mild burning agent
 Zinc chloride
o Controlled burnout
 Magnesium chloride
o Safer alternative
 Sodium bisulfate
o Acidic burnout
Strong acids require strict safety control.

3.1.1 Printing

Example recipe (polyester/cotton blend):

 Burnout agent (AlCl₃ or MgCl₂) 200–300 g
 Thickener (alginate / CMC) 40–60 g
 Wetting agent 2–5 g
 Penetration agent 3–5 g
 Water Balance to 1 kg
Printing process steps:
 Screen printing or rotary printing
o Burnout paste applied in pattern
 Drying
o Temperature: 100–120°C
o Purpose: Remove moisture
 Burning / Curing
o Temperature: 140–180°C
o Time: 1–3 minutes
Cellulosic fibers degrade
 Washing
o Hot wash to remove destroyed fiber
o Neutralization if acid used
 Finishing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 133 -

o Softener application
o Heat setting (for synthetics)

3.1.2 Combined burnout & color printing

Burnout printing is often combined with pigment, disperse, or reactive printing.

Techniques:
 White burnout on dyed fabric
 Colored burnout printing
 Burnout + disperse dye printing on polyester
 Burnout + pigment print for contrast effects

3.2 Duplex (double) printing

Duplex printing is a textile printing technique in which both sides of a fabric are printed, either with the same
design (mirror effect) or with different designs/colors on each side. This process is especially important for
fabrics that are visible from both sides, such as scarves, shawls, saris, dress materials, curtains, and
upholstery fabrics.
Unlike ordinary printing, where color penetrates only one surface duplex printing ensures balanced
appearance, improved color depth, and functional reversibility of the fabric.

Types:
 Same design on both sides
o Requires accurate registration and penetration control.
o DAP (fertilizer) can be used to help penetration in heavy fabrics.
 Different designs on each side
o Fabric is printed on one side, dried, and then printed on the opposite side

Applications:
 Scarves
 Curtains
 High-value apparel fabrics

3.3 Metallic printing

Metallic printing is a special decorative textile printing technique used to produce shiny, lustrous, metal-like
effects on fabrics. It is widely applied in fashion apparel, home textiles, upholstery, stage costumes, and
promotional fabrics where visual impact and luxury appearance are desired. The effect is achieved by
printing metallic pigments or metallic foils onto the fabric surface using suitable binders and curing
processes.

3.3.1 Types of metallic printing

Metallic pigment printing:

 Uses metallic powders or pastes dispersed in a printing medium.
 Common metals:

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 134 -

o Aluminum → silver shades

o Copper alloys → gold and bronze shades
Printed similarly to pigment printing.
 Characteristics:
o Soft to medium handle
o Moderate durability
o Suitable for large-area designs
Foil printing (metal foil transfer printing):
 A metallic foil sheet is transferred onto fabric using an adhesive pattern.
o Produces high-gloss, mirror-like effects.
 Characteristics:
o Very high shine
o Limited flexibility
o Excellent decorative appearance
Glitter printing (related technique):
 Uses polyester glitter particles instead of metal powders.
o Often grouped with metallic effects.

3.3.2 Printing
Printing method is same as pigment printing.
Metallic printing is generally done with pigments in one or two screen/color options.

3.4 Flock printing

Flock printing is a specialty textile printing technique used to create a velvety, suede-like, or pile surface on
fabrics. It involves depositing short fibers (flock) onto a printed adhesive layer, giving the fabric a raised,
soft, and luxurious texture. Flock printing is widely used for decorative, fashion, upholstery, automotive, and
promotional textiles.

The basic principle of flock printing is:

 Adhesive is printed onto the fabric in the desired design.
 Short fibers (flock) are applied onto the wet adhesive.
 Electrostatic or mechanical force aligns the fibers perpendicular to the fabric surface.
 Curing fixes, the fibers permanently.
 The fibers stick only where adhesive is present, forming a 3D textured print.
Types of flock printing:
 Mechanical flock printing
o Fibers are sprinkled mechanically over adhesive
o Fibers lie in random directions
o Lower pile quality
o Used for low-cost applications
 Electrostatic flock printing
o Fibers are electrically charged
o Fibers stand vertically on adhesive
o Uniform pile height and better appearance
o Most commonly used industrial method

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 135 -

3.4.1 Flock fibers

Flock fibers are finely cut textile fibers (length: 0.3–1.2 mm):

Fiber type:
 Rayon (Viscose)
o Soft, luxurious, good dyeability (Fashion, home textiles)
 Nylon
o High abrasion resistance (Automotive, upholstery)
 Polyester
o Cost-effective, durable (Sportswear, decorations)
 Acrylic
o Good color brilliance (Decorative applications)

3.4.2 Printing

Adhesive types:
 Acrylic-based adhesives
 Polyurethane (PU) adhesives
 PVC-based adhesives
Typical adhesive printing recipe:
 Flock adhesive (acrylic/PU) 100 parts
 Thickener 1–3%
 Crosslinker 2–5%
 Catalyst (if required)
 Water Balance
Printing methods:
 Flat screen printing
 Rotary screen printing
Flock application:
 Flock fibers are uniformly distributed over the wet adhesive
 Excess flock is removed by vacuum or vibration
 Electrostatic field (20–80 kV) ensures upright fiber orientation
Drying
Curing:
 140–160°C, 2–5 min
Curing crosslinks, the adhesive and permanently fixes the fibers.
Post-treatment:
 Brushing or vacuuming to remove loose fibers
 Heat pressing for smoothness
 Optional softener application
 Washing (if required)

3.5 Puff printing

Puff printing is a specialty effect printing technique in textile processing in which the printed design
expands and rises above the fabric surface after curing, producing a three-dimensional (3D), soft,
and spongy texture. This effect is achieved by incorporating puff (expanding) additives into the
printing paste, which swell when exposed to heat.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 136 -

Puff printing is widely used in fashion apparel, sportswear, children’s garments, casual wear, logos,
and decorative prints, especially where a bold and tactile appearance is desired.

Principle:
The puff effect is based on the thermal expansion of blowing agents or puff additives present in the
print paste.
During curing (140–170°C), the puff additive decomposes
This releases gas (usually nitrogen or CO₂)
The binder matrix expands and rises
The printed area becomes thicker, raised, and soft
Key requirement: Controlled heat application – under-curing gives low puff, over-curing collapses
the print.

Types of puff printing:

 Plastisol puff printing
o Uses plastisol ink with puff additive
o High opacity and strong puff effect
o Common in garment printing
 Water-based puff printing
o Eco-friendlier option
o Softer hand feel
o Lower puff height than plastisol
 Silicone puff printing
o Excellent elasticity
o Used for sportswear and stretch fabrics
o Higher durability and wash fastness

3.5.1 Printing

Water-based puff printing recipe:

 Binder 50–60%
 Puff additive (expanding agent) 10–20%
 Pigment color 3–8%
 Thickener 3–5%
 Fixer / crosslinker 1–2%
 Softener (optional) 0.5–1%
 Water Balance
Printing:
 Coarse mesh (30–80 mesh)
 Single or multiple strokes
 Drying at 100–120°C (do not puff at this stage)
Curing / puff activation:
 150–170°C for 1–3 minutes
 Puff expansion occurs here

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 137 -

Chapter (7

FINISHING

Introduction

Physical Finishing

Chemical Finishing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 138 -

Introduction
Introduction
Textile finishing is the final stage of textile processing, carried out after spinning, weaving/knitting,
dyeing, and printing. The purpose of finishing is to improve the appearance, handle, performance,
and serviceability of textile materials according to end-use requirements.
Finishing operations may be temporary or permanent, mechanical or chemical, and are applied to
fibers, yarns, fabrics, or garments. This stage significantly determines the commercial value,
comfort, durability, and functionality of textile products.

Objectives:
 The main objectives of textile finishing include:
o Improving appearance (smoothness, lustre, brightness)
o Enhancing handle and feel (softness, fullness, stiffness)
o Improving dimensional stability
o Increasing functional performance
o Imparting special properties
o Correcting defects produced during previous processes
o Preparing textiles for specific end uses

Classification:
 Mechanical finishing
 Physical treatments applied without chemicals.
o Curing / Ageing
o Stenter machine
o Calendar machine
o Sanforising machine
o Raising machine
o Sueding / Peach finishing
o Brushing
o Embossing
 Chemical finishing
 Treatments using chemicals to impart specific properties.
o Softening finish
o Crease-Resistant / Wrinkle-Free finish
o Water-Repellent finish
o Flame-Retardant finish
o Antimicrobial finish
o Antistatic finish
o Soil-Release finish

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 139 -

Mechanical Finishing
Introduction
Mechanical finishing refers to physical treatments applied to textile materials using mechanical
force, heat, pressure, friction, or controlled distortion, without relying primarily on chemical
reactions.
Mechanical finishing processes can produce temporary or semi-permanent effects, although
modern technologies allow many finishes to become durable.

Objectives:
 Mechanical finishing is applied to achieve the following:
 Improve surface appearance (smoothness, lustre, pile)
 Enhance fabric handle (softness, fullness, stiffness)
 Control dimensional stability (shrinkage, width, skew)
 Modify fabric structure (compactness, porosity)
 Create special effects (suede, peach skin, embossing)
 Improve performance properties (crease resistance, drape)

1. Curing / Ageing
Curing or ageing for fixation, also considered in finishing category.

1.1 Loop steamer machine

This is continuing process machine, commonly used for reactive dyes fixation. The fabric aged 5 to
7mints in closed atmosphere with saturated or super-heated steam at around 100 c. Fabric moves
in loop from.

1.2 HTHP steamer machine

This is batch process machine, commonly used for disperse dyes fixation. The fabric typically aged
in pressure with saturated or super-heated steam 30 to 60 minutes at a temperature of 130–135°C,
depending on the desired shade depth. Temperature varies with time. Fabric batch load in
machine in loop form, then machine tiddly closed.

1.3 Loop curing machine

This is continuing process machine, commonly used for pigment dyes fixation. The fabric aged 5 to
8 mints in closed atmosphere with dry heat at the temperature 120 to 140c. Fabric moves in loop
from.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 140 -

2. Stenter machine
Stenter is a versatile continues process machine, most commonly used for application of finish
chemical, fabric width control, control of skewness and bowing, shrinkage etc.

Heat setting:
Exposing the fabric above 30 to 50 c from "glass transition (tg)". The fabric treated with high
temperature (dry hot air or steam) at high speed.

Polyester:
 Temperature. 180 to 220 c
 Time. 20 to 60 sec
Nylon:
 Temperature. 160 to 200 c
 Time. 30 to 90 sec
(Speed varies with the temperature)

3. Calendar machine
A calendar machine is a physical finishing machine, (after peddling the finish chemicals) that uses
a series of hard pressure rollers (bowls) to compress fabric under controlled heat, friction and
pressure. This process is used to enhance the fabric's aesthetic and physical properties, such as
increasing its smoothness, lustre (shine), density, reduction of yarn slippage and reducing the
thickness, etc
Typically, 3, 5, or 7 bowls (rollers), are being used, the combination of steel rollers, cotton rollers,
nylon rollers and paper rollers are being used as per requirement.

Types of calendaring:
 Simple calendaring
 Friction calendaring
 Schreiner calendaring
 Chasing calendaring
 Embossed calendaring

Parts of simple calendar and their function:

 Seam detector
o Function of seam detector is to bypass the seam.
 Metal detector
o Metal detector to detect metal partials.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 141 -

 Anti-static rod
o Anti-static rod is used to remove static charges.
 Small winder
o To calendar short width fabric and can run short width fabric with long width fabric.
 Oscillating roll
o To avoid selvedge overlapping on batcher.
 Cotton roll
o For soft finish the fabric is passed through cotton bowl. Roller is made up of cotton.
 Steel roll
o To give smoothness and lustre. The temperature is provided to steel roller about 32-
200°C with help of electric heater as we increase the temperature shining will
increases only used for cotton CVC and percale and PC.
 Reclon roll
o When fabric passes through Reclon roll and steel roll giving smooth and lustre effect
is generated. When it runs with steel roll and reclon roll and cotton roll dull effect is
generated. When it runs b/w steel and reclon gloss effect is generated.
 Cooling drum
o Cool down the fabric water circulates inside the cooling drum.

The famous brand for best calendar is “Ramesh calendar” commonly used in export units with
three bowls, (steel, cotton, rubber)
For locals, commonly locally made 5 or 7 bowls are being used.

4. Sanforising machine
It is a mechanical (compacting) pre-shrinking process machine for textiles, particularly cotton, that
reduces the tendency of a fabric to shrink after being made into a garment and washed. This
machine stabilizes dimensions, increases stability and softens the fabric.

4.1 Working method

Fabric speed:
 15–40 m/min
Moistening:
 The fabric is first dampened to lubricate the fibers and prepare them for compression.
 Moisture content: 8–14%
Compression:
 The fabric is then passed with an endless rubber blanket. The blanket is compressed by a
roller, which forces the fabric to shrink and compact its yarns in both the length and width.
 Rubber belt pressure: 2–6 bar
 Compression ratio: 1–3%
Drying:
 Finally, the fabric enters a drying zone to lock the compressed structure in place.
 Drying temperature: 100–140 °C

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 142 -

5. Raising machine
A raising (napping) machine is a textile finishing machine that lifts the fibers on a fabric's surface to
create a soft, fuzzy texture known as a nap. The finish also known as peach finish. It uses
revolving cylinders covered with fine wire or card clothing to pull the fibers, resulting in a more
luxurious feel and increased warmth. These machines are essential for producing fabrics like
flannel, fleece, and velour.

How it works:
 The machine features a series of rollers, each covered with a specific type of metal point,
wire or sand paper, etc.

Types of raising:
 Teasel raising
o An older method that uses a natural teasel to raise the fibers.
 Card wire raising
o The more modern and common method, which uses wire-covered rollers to lift fibers.
 Sueding
o A process similar to raising, but it uses an abrasive like sandpaper to create a low,
suede-like pile.

6. Sueding / Peach finishing

Principle:
 Fabric surface is micro-abraded using emery rollers.
Objectives:
 Peach-skin effect
 Soft, suede-like handle
Key parameters typical range:
 Emery grit size 240–600
 Roller speed 300–800 rpm
 Fabric tension Controlled
 Number of passes 1–4

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 143 -

7. Brushing

Principle:
 Fabric is passed over soft brushes to gently raise fibers.
Objectives:
 Improve softness
 Enhance hand feel
 Clean surface fibers
Key parameters typical range:
 Brush speed 200–600 rpm
 Contact pressure Low
 Fabric speed 20–50 m/min
 Number of passages 1–3

8. Embossing

Principle:
 Fabric is passed between engraved heated rollers, creating raised patterns.
Objectives:
 Decorative effects
 Imitation of leather or jacquard
Key parameters typical range:
 Temperature 120–200 °C
 Pressure High
 Dwell time Short
 Fabric moisture Low
Fibers used:
 Thermoplastic fibers (polyester, acetate)

Advantages of mechanical finishing:

 No chemical consumption
 Environmentally friendly
 Immediate visual results
 Cost-effective
 Suitable for many fiber types
Limitations of mechanical finishing:
 Effects may be temporary
 Over-processing can damage fabric
 Limited functional performance improvement
 Often combined with chemical finishing for durability

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 144 -

Chemical Finishing
Introduction
Chemical finishing is the final stage of textile wet processing in which chemical substances are
applied to fabrics to impart specific functional, aesthetic, and performance properties that cannot
be achieved by mechanical finishing alone. Unlike dyeing or printing, chemical finishing does not
primarily change color, but modifies surface, handle, durability, comfort, and functional behaviour
of textile materials. Chemical finishing is widely used for apparel, home textiles, technical textiles,
and industrial fabrics, and it plays a crucial role in value addition, product differentiation, and
compliance with end-use requirements.

Classification of chemical finishing:

 According to Durability
o Temporary finishes
o Removed easily by washing (e.g., starch finish)
o Semi-durable finishes
o Last for a few washes
o Durable finishes
o Retain effect after repeated laundering
o Permanent finishes
o Chemically bonded to fiber
 According to function
o Softening finishes
o Crease-resistant finishes
o Water-repellent and waterproof finishes
o Flame-retardant finishes
o Antimicrobial finishes
o Antistatic finishes
o Soil-release finishes
o UV-protective finishes
o Resin finishes

Methods of application:
 Padding method
 Most widely used for woven and knitted fabrics.
o Wet pick-up: 60–80%
o Uniform chemical application
o Suitable for continuous processing
 Exhaust method
 Mainly for garments and knits
o Chemical exhaustion from bath to fiber
 Coating / laminating
 For functional and technical textiles
o Thick chemical layers applied on fabric surface

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 145 -

1. Chemicals
Finishing is performed by variety of chemicals like, starch, dextrin, glue/gums, China cly, Epsom
salt, soaps, long-chain, fatty acids, waxes, soluble oils, synthetic resins, fatty alcohol, silicone,
Quaternary ammonium compounds and synthetic resins, etc. they worked as softeners, emulsifiers
Solvents, etc.

Types of chemical softners

1.1 Anionic softeners

These are negatively charged softeners, good for synthetic fibers but also for cotton, compatible
with optical brighteners, good wettability so good for towels.

Softeners:
 Soaps
 Sulphated oils
 Fatty acids
Disadvantages:
 Fastness properties are not good, they are unstable in hard water and acid environments
and can be incompatible with cationic finishes.

1.2 Cationic softeners

Positively charged softeners, for cotton, polyester, and wool. Apparel, towels, and other finished
products. Most textile fibers have a negative charge, so the positively charged cationic softeners
are easily attracted to and adhere to the fiber surfaces. This attraction causes the softener to form
a thin, lubricating film on the fibers, which reduces friction and makes soft, fluffy, and silky feel to
the fabric. Helps reduce static cling, especially in synthetic fibers. Improves fabric sewability and
can increase tear and abrasion resistance. Improves the flow and drape of the fabric.

Quaternary ammonium compounds like:

 Dodecyl trimethylammonium
 Tetradecyl trimethylammonium
 Cetyltrimethylammonium
Other compounds such as:
 Esterquats
 Imidazolines
 Amino-esters
Processes:
 Resin finishing
 Wrinkle-free treatments
Disadvantage:
 Can cause white fabrics to yellow at high processing temperatures. May create unwanted
water repellence in some applications. Cationic softeners are incompatible with anionic
softeners and can interfere with anionic dyes, potentially causing issues like crocking (color
rubbing off). Can cause build-up on fabric over time if not used correctly.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 146 -

1.3 Non-ionic softeners

No electrical charge softeners, provide a soft hand and excellent non-yellowing properties. Impart
a slick, silky feel, and can enhance fabric color vibrancy, improving tear and abrasion resistance,
provide sewing lubricity, resist discoloration and heat.

Softeners like:
 Polyethylene emulsions
 Ethoxylates of fatty acids
 Fatty alcohol ethoxylates
 Silicone softeners, such as polydimethyl siloxane
Other examples:
 Paraffin and fats
 Glycerol monostearate
 Fatty acid ethanolamide
Application:
 Nonionic softeners are applied during the final stages of textile finishing, often after dyeing
and washing, compatible with other additives, such as cationic and nonionic agents, making
them very versatile in textile finishing. Some are non-toxic and safe for both textiles and
personnel.

1.4 Reactive softeners

These softeners are chemical agents that form a permanent, covalent bond with textile fibers. This
process results in a durable finish that is applied to a wide range of fabrics, including cotton, wool,
and synthetics. Unlike conventional softeners, which can wash out over time, reactive softeners
form a chemical linkage that is highly durable to washing.
The process requires a subsequent curing step, often involving heat, to complete the chemical
reaction that bonds the softener to the fiber. For example, a common application involves drying
the fabric at around 80c and then curing it at a higher temperature of 120 to 150c for a few
minutes.

Softeners like:
 N-methylol derivatives
 Octadecyl ethylene
 Epoxy compounds
 Carbamates,
 Softener based on 1,3,5-triazine
 Softener based on diisocyanate
 Stearyl amidomethyl pyridinium chloride

1.5 Silicon emulsion softeners

Finishing agents used in the textile industry to make fabrics soft and smooth. They are silicone
polymers dispersed in water that improve the feel, appearance, for wide range textiles like cotton,
viscose, and blends. These softeners can also be used in other products, such as polishes, where
they add shine, or as mold release agents. They can be applied through various processes, such
as padding or exhaust methods.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 147 -

Example:
 Amino Silicone Softeners
 Hydrophilic Silicone Softeners
 Hydrophobic Silicone Softeners
 Block Silicone Softeners
 Macro and Micro Silicone Emulsions
 Anionic, Cationic, and Amphoteric Softeners
Brand examples:
 AQUACONC-ET
 CARESOFT-XC
 DELTASOFT-6805
 POWSIL™ 59255
 SoftenSil-5980

2. Important chemical finishes

2.1 Softening finish

Improve fabric hand feel, smoothness, and drape

Types of softeners:
 Cationic
 Anionic
 Nonionic
 Silicone softeners (micro, macro, nano)
Typical padding recipe:
 Silicone softener 20–40 g/L
 Acetic acid (pH 4.5–5.5) 0.5–1 g/L
 Water Balance
Process Parameters:
 Padding 70% pick-up
 Drying 120–130°C
No curing required

2.2 Crease-resistant / wrinkle-free finish

Improve crease recovery and dimensional stability (mainly for cotton)

Common chemicals:
 DMDHEU resin
 Modified low-formaldehyde resins
 Polycarboxylic acids (eco-friendly)
Typical recipe (cotton fabric):
 DMDHEU resin 80–120 g/L
 Catalyst (MgCl₂ / Zn(NO₃)₂) 10–15 g/L

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 148 -

 Softener 10–20 g/L

 Wetting agent 1–2 g/L
Process parameters:
 Padding → Drying at 110–120°C
 Curing 150–160°C for 2–3 min

2.3 Water-repellent finish

Prevent water penetration while maintaining air permeability

Common chemicals:
 Fluorocarbon-based repellents
 Silicone repellents
 Paraffin wax emulsions
Typical recipe:
 Fluorocarbon repellent 30–60 g/L
 Crosslinker 5–10 g/L
 Catalyst 2–5 g/L
 Acetic acid (pH 4.5–5) 0.5 g/L
Process parameters:
 Padding 70% pick-up
 Drying 110–120°C
 Curing 150–170°C for 1–2 min

2.4 Flame-retardant finish

Reduce flammability for protective and home textiles

Common chemicals:
 Phosphorus-based compounds
 Nitrogen-phosphorus systems
Typical recipe (cotton):
 Flame retardant chemical 200–350 g/L
 Binder 20–40 g/L
 Catalyst 10 g/L
Process parameters:
 Padding → Drying at 120°C
 Curing 160–170°C

2.5 Antimicrobial finish

Inhibit growth of bacteria, fungi, and odor-causing microbes

Common chemicals:
 Silver compounds
 Quaternary ammonium salts
 Triclosan (restricted in many regions)
Typical recipe:

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 149 -

 Antimicrobial agent 5–20 g/L

 Binder 10–30 g/L
 Wetting agent 1–2 g/L
Process parameters:
 Padding or exhaust
 Drying at 120–130°C
Curing if binder is used

2.6 Antistatic finish

Reduce static electricity (synthetic fibers)

Common chemicals:
 Polyethylene glycol derivatives
 Quaternary ammonium compounds
Typical recipe:
 Antistatic agent 10–30 g/L
 Softener 10 g/L

2.7 Soil-release finish

Facilitate removal of oily and particulate soils during washing

Typical recipe:
 Soil-release polymer 30–50 g/L
 Crosslinker 5–10 g/L
 Softener 10 g/L
Parameter typical range:
 pH 4.5–6.5
 Wet pick-up 60–80%
 Drying temperature 110–130°C
 Curing temperature 150–180°C

Quality control and testing:

 Handle and softness evaluation
 Wash durability testing
 Crease recovery angle
 Water spray test
 Flammability test
 Antimicrobial efficacy test
 Fabric strength and abrasion test
Environmental and safety considerations:
 Use of low-formaldehyde or formaldehyde-free resins
 Compliance with REACH, OEKO-TEX®, ZDHC
 Effluent treatment and chemical management
 Shift toward bio-based and sustainable finishes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 150 -

Chapter (8

OTHER ASPECTS

Lab and QC

Utilities

Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

Conclusion

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 151 -

Lab and QC

Introduction
Textile laboratories play a critical role in ensuring product quality, process control, cost
optimization, and compliance with international standards. Laboratories support all stages of textile
processing including:
 Raw material evaluation
 Process development
 Color matching and recipe optimization
 Quality control and assurance
 Troubleshooting production problems
 Compliance with buyer and regulatory requirements
 Textile laboratories bridge the gap between research, production, and quality management.

1. Types and responsibilities

Research and development (R&D):

 Development of new dyes, finishes, and processes
 Improvement of existing technologies
 Testing sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives
Process control:
 Monitor dyeing, printing, and finishing processes
 Analyse bath parameters (pH, temperature, concentration)
 Reduce reprocessing and wastage
Quality control (QC):
 Fabric meets buyer specifications
 Consistency between lab samples and bulk production
 Testing according to international standards (ISO, AATCC, ASTM)
Physical testing:
 Strength and performance testing
 Durability and comfort evaluation
Chemical testing:
 Chemical composition analysis
 Effluent and wastewater testing
 Restricted Substances List (RSL) compliance

General laboratory infrastructure:

 Controlled temperature and humidity (Standard: 20 ± 2°C, 65 ± 4% RH)
 Chemical-resistant workbenches
 Proper ventilation and fume hoods
 Safety equipment (eye wash, fire extinguishers)
 Proper chemical storage cabinets

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 152 -

2. Equipment used in llaboratories

2.1 Color matching and dyeing equipment

 Sample dyeing machines

o Used for lab-scale dyeing simulations.
 Infrared (IR) dyeing machine
o Suitable for small fabric/yarn samples
o Precise temperature control
o Used for reactive, disperse, acid, and vat dyes
 High temperature high pressure (HTHP) Dyeing Machine
o Used for polyester and blends
o Operating temperature up to 140°C
o Simulates jet and package dyeing
 Beaker dyeing machine
o Common in lab dip development
o Multiple beakers for shade comparison

Padding and printing simulation equipment:

 Laboratory padding mangle
o Simulates continuous dyeing and finishing
o Adjustable nip pressure and pick-up %
 Laboratory printing table / mini rotary printer
o Used for print paste trials
o Screen and rotary printing simulation

2.2 Color measurement and evaluation equipment

 Spectrophotometer
o Color measurement and matching
o ΔE (color difference) calculation
o Batch-to-batch consistency
o Types:
o Reflectance spectrophotometer
o Portable spectrophotometer
 Color matching software
o Computer-Aided color matching (CCM)
o Recipe prediction and correction
o Reduces dye cost and development time
 Light boxes (color viewing cabinets)
o Used for visual shade assessment under different light sources:
o D65 (daylight)
o TL84 (store light)
o Incandescent (A)
o UV light

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 153 -

2.3 Chemical analysis and control equipment

 pH Meter
o Controls dye bath and finishing bath pH
o Essential for reactive and acid dyeing
 Conductivity Meter
o Measures salt concentration
o Important for reactive dye exhaustion control
 Analytical Balance
o High precision weighing (0.0001 g accuracy)
o Used for dye and chemical weighing
 Titration Equipment
o Manual and automatic burettes
o Used to determine:
o Alkali concentration
o Residual peroxide
o Water hardness

2.4 Physical testing equipment

 Tensile strength tester

o Measures fabric and yarn strength
o Strip and grab test methods
 Tear strength tester
o Elmendorf tear tester
 Abrasion resistance tester
o Martindale abrasion tester
 Pilling tester
o Martindale or ICI pilling box
 Bursting strength tester
o Hydraulic or pneumatic types

2.5 Fastness testing equipment

 Washing fastness tester

o Launder-O-meter
o ISO and AATCC standards
 Rubbing (Crocking) fastness tester
o Dry and wet rubbing assessment
 Light fastness tester
o Xenon arc lamp tester
o Simulates sunlight exposure
 Perspiration fastness tester
o Acidic and alkaline sweat simulation

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 154 -

2.6 Finishing and functional testing equipment

 Crease recovery tester

 Shrinkage tester
 Water repellence spray tester
 Air permeability tester
 Fabric stiffness tester
 Flammability tester

4.7 Environmental and Effluent Testing Equipment

 COD and BOD analyzers

 TDS and TSS meters
 UV–Visible Spectrophotometer
 Turbidity meter
 Used to:
o Monitor wastewater quality
o Meet environmental regulations
o Ensure sustainable production

Safety equipment in textile laboratories:

 Fume hoods
 Chemical-resistant gloves and goggles
 Emergency shower and eye wash
 Fire extinguishers
 Spill control kits

Importance of laboratory equipment:

 Ensures consistent quality
 Reduces production cost
 Improves reproducibility from lab to bulk
 Enhances customer satisfaction
 Supports sustainable and compliant manufacturing

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 155 -

Utilities
Introduction
In the textile processing industry, utilities are essential support systems that provide energy, water,
air, heat, and environmental control required for continuous and efficient operation of
manufacturing processes such as pre-treatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing.
Utilities typically account for 25–40% of total processing cost, making their optimization critical.

1. Water
Water is the most critical utility in textile processing due to its extensive use. High water use leads
to large volumes of wastewater often laden with chemicals, dyes, salts, and organic matter, making
sustainable water management a key challenge for the industry.

The most water-intensive phase:

 Desizing
o Removing size agents using water and enzymes.
 Scouring
o Deep cleaning to eliminate natural and added impurities.
 Bleaching
o Water carries chemicals like hydrogen peroxide.
 Dyeing
o Water serves as a medium for dyes to adhere to fibers.
 Printing
o Water-based pastes and subsequent rinsing apply patterns.
 Finishing
o Processes like softening, anti-wrinkle finishing, and washing rely on water.

Wet processing alone can account for up to 80% of total water use in textile manufacturing.

Standard water quality for dyeing/processing:

 Color color less
 Smell order less
 PH 7 (neutral)
 Water hardness <25ppm
 Dissolve solid <1ppm
 Inorganic salts <500 mg/l
 Fe <0.1 mg/l
 Cu <0.005 mg/l
 Nitrate NO² <5 mg/l
 Nitrate NO³ <50 mg/l
 Manganese (Mn). <0.02 mg/l

Total dissolve solid (TDS) 65 to 150

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 156 -

Water sources:
 Groundwater (tube wells)
 Surface water (rivers, canals)
 Municipal supply
 Recycled treated effluent
Water treatment units:
 Raw water storage tanks
 Pressure sand filters
 Activated carbon filters
 Water softeners
 Reverse osmosis (RO)
 Demineralization (DM) plant (for boilers)

2. Steam generation
Steam is one of the most important utilities in the textile processing industry. It is primarily used as
a source of heat and moisture for various wet and dry processes such as desizing, scouring,
bleaching, dyeing, printing, drying, and finishing. Boilers are the core equipment responsible for
generating steam in textile mills, and their efficiency directly affects production cost, quality, and
sustainability.

2.1 Boilers in textile industry

A boiler is a closed pressure vessel in which water is heated to generate steam by using fuel
energy. The steam produced is supplied to different sections of the textile plant through a steam
distribution network.

Types of boilers used in textile industry:

 Fire tube boilers
o Most commonly used in textile mills
o Hot gases pass through tubes surrounded by water
o Suitable for low to medium pressure steam
o Characteristics:
o Steam pressure: 6–20 bar
o Steam capacity: Up to 20 TPH
o Simple operation and maintenance
o Lower installation cost
o Applications:
o Small and medium textile processing units
 Water tube boilers
o Water flows inside tubes heated externally by combustion gases
o Suitable for high pressure and high capacity
o Characteristics:
o Steam pressure: 25–100 bar
o High efficiency
o Fast steam generation
o Higher capital cost
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 157 -

o Applications:
o Large integrated textile plants
 Package boilers
o Pre-assembled compact boilers
o Available in fire-tube and water-tube designs
o Advantages:
o Quick installation
o Space saving
o Automated operation

2.2 Steam generation process

Common fuels include:

 Natural gas
 Furnace oil (FO)
 Diesel
 Coal
 Biomass (rice husk, bagasse, wood chips)
 LPG
 Fuel selection depends on:
o Availability
o Cost
o Environmental regulations
o Required steam capacity

Feed water treatment:

 Raw water treated to remove hardness, dissolved salts, oxygen, and silica
 Prevents scale formation and corrosion
 Water Requirements (Typical):
o Hardness < 5 ppm
o pH 8.5 – 9.5
o TDS < 500 ppm
o Dissolved Oxygen < 0.02 ppm

Basic steam generation cycle:

 Boiler Feed Pump
 Supplies treated water to the boiler under pressure
 Combustion System
 Fuel burned in furnace
 Heat transferred to water through boiler tubes
 Steam Formation
 Water absorbs heat and converts into saturated or superheated steam
 Steam Collection
 Steam collected in boiler drum and sent to distribution system

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 158 -

2.3 Steam distribution system

Generated steam distributed through:

 Main steam headers
 Branch pipelines
 Control valves
 Pressure reducing stations (PRS)
 Steam traps
Key components:
 Steam traps – remove condensate without steam loss
 Insulated pipelines – minimize heat loss
 Pressure regulators – control steam pressure for different processes

2.4 Steam usage in textile processing

Pretreatment processes:
 Desizing
o Steam used in steaming chambers and washing
o Temperature: 90–100°C
 Scouring and Bleaching
o Steam provides heat to:
o Kier boilers
o Continuous scouring ranges
o Typical temperature: 95–130°C
Dyeing Processes:
 Batch dyeing (Jigger, Winch, Jet)
o Steam heats dye liquor via heat exchangers
o Precise temperature control critical for shade accuracy
 Continuous dyeing
o Pad-steam ranges
o Thermosol processes
Textile printing:
 Fixation of reactive, disperse, and vat dyes
 Polymerization of binders (pigment printing)
 Steam chambers conditions:
o Temperature: 100–105°C
o Saturated steam atmosphere
Drying operations:
 Drying cylinders
 Loop dryers
 Stenters (via heat exchangers)
 Steam ensures:
o Controlled drying rate
o Uniform moisture removal
o Reduced fabric damage

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 159 -

Finishing processes:
 Calendaring (heated rollers)
 Sanforizing
 Compacting
 Steam setting of synthetic fabrics

Condensate recovery system:

Condensate is hot water formed after steam releases heat.
 Benefits
o Saves fuel
o Reduces water consumption
o Improves boiler efficiency
o Reduces chemical treatment cost
o Typically, 70–80% condensate recovery is achievable in textile plants.
Boiler efficiency and energy management:
 Boiler efficiency factors
o Fuel quality
o Feed water temperature
o Excess air in combustion
o Scale formation
o Insulation quality
 Energy saving measures
o Economizers
o Air pre-heaters
o Automatic blowdown control
o Variable speed feed pumps
o Regular maintenance of steam traps
Safety in boiler operation:
 Safety valves
 Pressure gauges
 Water level indicators
 Blowdown systems
 Trained boiler operators
 Compliance with boiler inspection regulations

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 160 -

3. Electrical power supply

Electricity is one of the most critical utilities in the textile processing industry. It is required for
continuous operation of machines, process control, automation, environmental systems, and
quality assurance. Unlike steam or water, electricity directly drives almost every mechanical and
electronic function in a textile plant, from fiber opening to finishing and packing.
Due to the energy-intensive nature of textile processing and the need for uninterrupted production,
most textile mills use a combination of grid electricity and captive power generation systems.

3.1 Sources of electrical power in textile mills

3.1.1 Grid (Utility) power

Supplied by national or regional electricity authorities

Common voltage levels:

 11 kV / 33 kV incoming supply for medium to large mills
 Stepped down to 415 V (3-phase) for machinery
Advantages:
 Lower capital investment
 Easier maintenance
Limitations:
 Power outages
 Voltage fluctuations
 Load shedding (common in developing textile regions)

3.1.2 Captive power generation

Captive power plants are widely used in textile industries to ensure reliable and cost-effective
electricity supply.

Diesel generator (DG) sets:

Used as standby or emergency power
 Capacity range:
o 100 kVA to 5000 kVA
 Fuel:
o High-speed diesel (HSD)
 Applications:
o Backup for critical machines
o Lighting and control systems
 Advantages:
o Quick start
o Reliable
 Disadvantages:
o High fuel cost
o Noise and emissions
Gas-based power generators:
 Fuel:

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 161 -

o Natural gas / LNG / biogas

o Often used in combined heat and power (CHP) systems
o Popular in textile processing clusters
 Benefits:
o Lower operating cost
o Cleaner emissions
o Can supply waste heat for boilers or thermic fluid heaters
Steam turbine generators:
 Used where high-pressure boilers are already installed
 Electricity generated from boiler steam before process use
 Advantages:
o Efficient energy utilization
o Ideal for large processing units
Renewable energy sources:
 Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
 Wind energy (limited locations)
 Usage:
o Lighting
o Administrative buildings
o Supplementary power for production

3.2 Electrical power distribution system in textile mills

Electrical substation:
 Incoming transformers (11 kV / 33 kV to 415 V)
 Circuit breakers (VCB, ACB)
 Protection relays
 Metering systems
Power distribution network:
 Main Distribution Board (MDB)
 Sub-Distribution Boards (SDB)
 Motor Control Centers (MCC)
 Safety Features
 Earthing systems
 Overload and short-circuit protection
 Surge protection devices

3.3 Electrical drives and motors in textile machinery

Electric motors:
 Electric motors consume 60–70% of total electrical energy in textile plants.
 Common types:
o Induction motors (squirrel cage)
o Servo motors (for precise control)
o Synchronous motors (large loads)

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 162 -

 Power ratings:
o From 0.5 HP to 500 HP
Variable frequency drives (VFDs):
 Used extensively for:
o Speed control
o Energy saving
o Smooth starting
 Applications:
o Pumps
o Fans
o Padding mangles
o Stenters
o Compressors
 Energy savings:
o 20–40%

3.4 Automation and control systems

PLC and SCADA:

 Process automation
 Real-time monitoring
 Energy management
Sensors and instrumentation:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow
 pH and conductivity
Lighting and HVAC systems:
 LED lighting for production floors
 Emergency lighting
 Air conditioning for:
 Labs
 Digital printing rooms
 Control rooms

Safety and electrical standards:

 Proper earthing and grounding
 Flameproof motors in hazardous areas
 Lockout–tagout (LOTO) procedures
 Compliance with IEC / IEEE / local electrical codes

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 163 -

4. Compressed Air System

Compressed air is a vital utility in the textile processing industry, often referred to as the “fourth
utility” after electricity, steam, and water. Air compressors supply clean, pressurized air required for
machine operation, automation, process control, cleaning, and material handling.

Functions of compressed air:

 Operating pneumatic cylinders, valves, and actuators
 Jet dyeing and air-flow dyeing machines
 Printing machines (screen lifting, squeegee pressure control)
 Finishing machines (stenter clips, padding pressure control)
 Fabric cleaning and dust removal
 Instrument air for PLC, sensors, and control systems

4.1 Types of air compressors used in textile industry

Reciprocating (Piston) compressors:

 Working principle:
o Air is compressed using a piston moving inside a cylinder.
 Applications:
o Small workshops
o Laboratories
o Low air demand areas
 Advantages:
o Low initial cost
o Suitable for intermittent use
 Limitations:
o High noise and vibration
o Higher maintenance
o Limited continuous operation
Rotary screw compressors (most common):
 Working principle:
o Two helical screws compress air continuously.
 Applications:
o Central compressed air systems
o Weaving, dyeing, printing, finishing departments
 Advantages:
o Continuous air supply
o High efficiency
o Low noise
o Long operating life
 Typical capacity:
o 20–500 CFM
 Pressure:
o 7–10 bar (100–145 psi)
This is the preferred compressor type for modern textile mills.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 164 -

Centrifugal compressors:
 Working principle:
o Air is compressed using high-speed rotating impellers.
 Applications:
o Very large integrated textile plants
 Advantages:
o Oil-free air
o Very high flow rates
o Low maintenance per CFM
 Limitations:
o High capital cost
o Best suited for constant high load
Scroll and oil-free compressors:
 Applications:
o Instrument air
o Textile laboratories
o Printing and finishing where oil contamination must be avoided
 Advantages:
o 100% oil-free air
o Compact and quiet

4.2 Key components of compressed air system

Air compressor:
 Generates compressed air
 Driven by electric motor or diesel engine
Air receiver (Storage Tank):
 Stores compressed air
 Reduces pressure fluctuations
o Helps moisture separation
Air dryer:
 Removes moisture from compressed air to prevent:
 Fabric staining
 Corrosion
 Pneumatic failure
 Types:
o Refrigerated dryer (most common)
o Desiccant dryer (for very dry air)
Air filters:
 Pre-filter (dust and particles)
 Coalescing filter (oil mist)
 Carbon filter (odor and oil vapor)
Distribution piping:
 Mild steel, aluminum, or stainless steel
o Designed to minimize pressure drop

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 165 -

4.3 Quality requirements of compressed air in textiles

Compressed air must be:

 Clean (free from oil, dust, and rust)
 Dry (low dew point)
 Stable pressure
Air quality standards (typical):
 Pressure: 6–8 bar (general machines)
 Dew point: +3°C to –20°C (depending on process)
 Oil content: <0.01 mg/m³ for sensitive processes
Oil or moisture contamination can cause:
 Fabric spots
 Shade variation
 Print defects
 Machine malfunction

4.4 Energy consumption and efficiency

Compressed air is one of the most expensive utilities in textile mills.

 1 m³ of compressed air costs 6–8 times more than electricity

 Air leakage can waste 20–30% of total air production

Energy saving measures:

 Leak detection and repair
 Variable Speed Drive (VSD) compressors
 Correct pressure setting
 Proper pipe sizing
 Heat recovery from compressor exhaust

Routine maintenance:
 Oil change (oil-lubricated compressors)
 Filter replacement
 Dryer inspection
 Drain moisture daily
 Check belt alignment and vibration
Safety measures:
 Pressure relief valves
 Regular tank inspection
 Proper ventilation of compressor room
 Noise control

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 166 -

5. Fuel systems
Fuel systems in the textile processing industry are critical for generating thermal energy required in
processes such as pre-treatment, dyeing, printing, finishing, drying, and curing. Fuels are mainly
consumed in boilers, thermic fluid heaters, stenters, dryers, hot air generators, and captive power
plants.
Efficient fuel selection and management directly affect production cost, process quality, energy
efficiency, and environmental compliance.

5.1 Major fuel types used in textile processing

5.1.1 Natural gas (NG)

Natural gas is the most preferred fuel in modern textile mills due to its cleanliness, efficiency, and
ease of control.

Applications:
 Steam boilers
o Gas pressure generally measured in PSI (pounds per square inch), around 16 to 19
psi pressure needed a boiler to generate steam at 212.5 f temperature
 Thermic fluid heaters
 Stenters and dryers
 Singeing machines
 Power generators (gas engines/turbines)
Advantages:
 High calorific value (≈ 8,500–9,000 kcal/Nm³)
 Clean combustion (low soot and ash)
 Precise temperature control
 Lower maintenance
 Lower emissions (CO₂, SOx, NOx)
Limitations:
 Dependency on gas pipeline infrastructure
 Supply interruptions in some regions
 Higher cost compared to coal/biomass in certain markets

5.1.2 Liquefied natural gas (LNG)

Used where pipeline gas is unavailable. LNG is stored cryogenically and regasified on-site.
Applications:
 Boilers
 Thermic fluid heaters
 Stenters
Advantages:
 Clean fuel similar to natural gas
 Suitable for remote textile clusters
 Consistent quality
Limitations:
 High capital cost for storage and regasification

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 167 -

 Safety and handling complexity

5.1.3 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

LPG (propane/butane mixture) is commonly used in medium and small textile units.
Applications:
Stenters
Singeing machines
Sample dyeing and lab equipment
Small boilers
Advantages:
High calorific value (≈ 11,000 kcal/kg)
Easy storage and handling
Good flame stability
Limitations:
Higher fuel cost
Cylinder or bulk storage dependency
Not economical for large-scale steam generation

5.1.4 Furnace oil (FO) / Heavy fuel oil (HFO)

Traditionally used in textile processing, especially in older plants.

Applications:
 Steam boilers
o A 1ton boiler can consume 60 to 70 litters of furnace oil per hour. For a 1150 kva
electric power generator need around 200 litres of oil per hour.
 Thermic fluid heaters
 Hot air generators
Advantages:
 High energy density
 Reliable availability
 Suitable for large boilers
Limitations:
 High sulfur content
 Soot and sludge formation
 High maintenance (burners, filters)
 Environmental compliance issues
 Declining use due to emission regulations

5.1.5 Light diesel oil (LDO) / High speed diesel (HSD)

Primarily used as backup or emergency fuel.

Applications:
 Standby boilers
 Power generators
 Emergency heating

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 168 -

Advantages:
 Easy ignition
 Stable combustion
 Simple storage
Limitations:
 High fuel cost
 Higher emissions than gas
 Not suitable for continuous operation

5.1.6 Coal
Still widely used in cost-sensitive textile regions, particularly for large steam demand.

Applications:
 Steam boilers (chain grate, FBC boilers)
Advantages:
 Low cost per unit of heat
 High availability
Limitations:
 High ash handling
 Poor combustion control
 High emissions (CO₂, SOx, particulate matter)
 Large storage and handling area
 Environmental and regulatory pressure

5.1.7 Biomass fuels

Like: Rice husk, Bagasse, Wood chips, Sawdust, Agro-waste briquettes/pellets

Applications:
 Steam boilers
 Thermic fluid heaters
Advantages:
 Renewable and carbon-neutral
 Low fuel cost
 Government incentives in many regions
Limitations:
 Inconsistent calorific value
 Storage space requirement
 High ash and clinker formation
 Moisture sensitivity

5.1.8 Electricity as an indirect fuel

Electricity is used for heating via electric boilers, infrared dryers, electric stenters in limited cases.

Advantages:
 Zero on-site emissions

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 169 -

 Precise control
 Clean operation
Limitations:
 High operating cost
 Load limitations
 Dependency on grid reliability

5.2 Fuel system components in textile mills

Fuel storage systems:

 Underground/above-ground tanks (FO, diesel)
 LPG bullets or cylinders
 Coal and biomass yards
 LNG cryogenic tanks
Fuel handling & transfer:
 Pumps and pipelines
 Fuel heating systems (for FO)
 Conveyors and feeders (coal/biomass)
 Gas pressure regulating stations (PRS)
Combustion systems:
 Burners (gas, oil, dual-fuel)
 Grate and fluidized bed systems (coal/biomass)
 Flame monitoring and safety interlocks
Control & monitoring:
 Flow meters
 Pressure and temperature sensors
 Automation (PLC/SCADA)
 Energy management systems

Energy and utility optimization:

 Common Best Practices
 Heat recovery from exhaust gases
 Condensate recovery from steam
 Water recycling and reuse
 Leak detection in steam and air lines
 Insulation of pipelines and vessels
Environmental & regulatory considerations:
 Emission norms (CO₂, SOx, NOx, PM)
 Stack monitoring
 Use of scrubbers and bag filters
 Carbon footprint reduction
 Compliance with local environmental authorities

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 170 -

Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

Introduction
The textile processing industry is one of the largest consumers of water and chemicals, generating
significant volumes of wastewater (effluent) containing dyes, salts, alkalis, acids, surfactants,
heavy metals, and organic pollutants. An Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) is a specialized system
designed to treat, detoxify, and safely discharge or reuse this wastewater in compliance with
environmental regulations.
ETPs are mandatory for textile dyeing, printing, and finishing units to minimize environmental
pollution, protect water resources, and support sustainable textile manufacturing.

Major effluent generating processes:

 Desizing
 Scouring
 Bleaching
 Mercerizing
 Dyeing (reactive, disperse, vat, sulfur, azoic)
 Printing (pigment, reactive, disperse)
 Washing and soaping
 Finishing processes
Characteristics of textile effluent:
 Color Very high (from dyes & pigments)
 pH 4–11 (acidic or alkaline)
 BOD High (organic matter)
 COD Very high
 TDS Extremely high (salts, NaCl, Na₂SO₄)
 Temperature 40–80°C
 Toxicity Presence of heavy metals, formaldehyde
 Suspended Solids Fibers, lint, chemicals
Objectives of ETP in textile industry:
 Removal of color and turbidity
 Reduction of BOD, COD, TDS, TSS
 Neutralization of pH
 Removal of toxic chemicals and heavy metals
 Safe discharge into water bodies or reuse
 Compliance with local environmental standards
 Water recycling and cost reduction
Types of ETP systems in textile industry:
 Conventional ETP
o Physical + Chemical + Biological treatment
o Widely used in medium and large textile mills
 CETP (Common Effluent Treatment Plant)
o Shared facility for multiple small textile units
o Cost-effective and space-saving

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 171 -

 ZLD (Zero Liquid Discharge) System

o Complete recovery and reuse of water
o No liquid effluent discharge
o High capital and operating cost

1. Process flow of textile ETP

1.1 Preliminary treatment

Removal of large solids and flow equalization

Units:
 Bar screen / Trash screen
 Grit chamber
 Collection tank
 Equalization tank (with air mixing)
Benefits:
 Uniform effluent quality
 Protects downstream equipment

1.2 Primary treatment (Physico-chemical treatment)

Removal of color, suspended solids, oil, grease

Processes Involved:
 pH Correction (acid/alkali dosing)
 Coagulation (Alum, PAC, Ferric chloride)
 Flocculation (Polyelectrolytes)
 Primary Clarifier / Settling Tank
Typical Chemical Dosage:
 Alum / PAC: 50–300 ppm
 Polyelectrolyte: 1–5 ppm

1.3 Secondary treatment (Biological treatment)

Purpose: Removal of dissolved organic matter (BOD, COD)

Common systems used:

 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
 Extended Aeration
 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)
 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
Key components:
 Aeration tank (diffused or surface aerators)
 Secondary clarifier
 Return activated sludge (RAS)
 Waste activated sludge (WAS)
Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.
 - 172 -

Efficiency:
 BOD removal: 85–95%
 COD removal: 70–85%

1.4 Tertiary treatment (advanced treatment)

Polishing and reuse of treated water

Processes:
 Pressure sand filter (PSF)
 Activated carbon filter (ACF)
 Ultrafiltration (UF)
 Reverse osmosis (RO)
 Ozonation / Advanced oxidation
Applications:
 Boiler feed water
 Washing and dyeing reuse
 Gardening and utilities

2. Sludge treatment and disposal

Sludge generation sources:

 Primary clarifier sludge
 Biological sludge (secondary treatment)
 RO reject sludge
Sludge handling system:
 Sludge Thickener
 Filter Press / Belt Press / Centrifuge
 Sludge Drying Beds
 Final Disposal:
o Authorized landfill
o Co-processing in cement kilns
o Incineration (where permitted)

3. Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) in textile industry

ZLD is increasingly adopted due to strict environmental regulations.

ZLD process flow:

 ETP → UF → RO
 RO Permeate reused
 RO Reject → Multiple Effect Evaporator (MEE)
 Salt recovery using crystallizer
Benefits:
 90–95% water recovery
 No liquid discharges

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 173 -

 Compliance with stringent norms

Challenges:
 High energy consumption
 Salt disposal management
 Skilled operation required

Automation and monitoring in textile ETP:

 Online pH, COD, TDS, flow meters
 SCADA systems
 Automatic chemical dosing
 Real-time data reporting to authorities
Environmental standards and compliance:
 pH 6.5 – 8.5
 BOD ≤ 30 mg/L
 COD ≤ 250 mg/L
 TSS ≤ 100 mg/L
 Color Nearly colorless
 TDS As per local regulations
Challenges in textile ETP operation:
 Variation in effluent quality
 High salt concentration
 Color removal difficulties
 High operating cost
 Skilled manpower requirement
 Sludge disposal issues
Best Practices for Efficient Textile ETP:
 Segregation of high-TDS streams
 Water and chemical optimization at source
 Use of low-salt dyes and chemicals
 Regular monitoring and maintenance
 Operator training and SOP implementation
 Integration with water recycling systems

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.

 - 174 -

Conclusion

The textile processing industry stands as one of the most complex and essential pillars of the
global manufacturing sector, transforming raw fibers into finished fabrics that meet functional,
aesthetic, and performance requirements. This book has presented a comprehensive journey
through the entire textile processing chain—from fabric preparation, pre-treatment, dyeing,
and printing to finishing operations—highlighting the scientific principles, machinery,
chemicals, utilities, and quality controls involved at each stage.
In today’s evolving industrial landscape, the textile processing industry faces increasing
pressure to adopt sustainable and environmentally responsible practices. Throughout the
chapters, emphasis has been placed on the critical role of utilities such as water, steam,
electricity, fuels, compressed air, and effluent treatment systems, which form the backbone
of any textile processing facility. This book has therefore underscored the importance of
resource optimization, energy efficiency, cleaner production technologies, and effective
effluent and waste management systems. Innovations in digital printing, automation, low-
liquor-ratio machines, and eco-friendly chemicals signal a clear shift toward greener and
smarter manufacturing.
In conclusion, this book serves as both a technical reference and a practical guide for
students, engineers, technologists, and industry professionals. By combining fundamental
concepts with industrial practices, it aims to support informed decision-making, continuous
improvement, and innovation within textile processing operations. As the industry moves
forward, a balanced approach—integrating quality, productivity, sustainability, and
technological advancement—will be essential to ensure long-term growth and global
competitiveness of the textile processing industry.

Industrial experience notes by Mohsin Zia.