CHAPTER 1

CONTROL DEVICES

Orascom training academy

 CH 1 : Electric circuits
AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
The circuit shown below has a power source, fuse, switch, two lamps and wires
connecting each into a loop or circle. When the connection is complete, current flows
from the positive terminal of the battery through the wire, the fuse, the switch, another
wire, the lamps, a wire and to the negative terminal of the battery. The route along
which the electricity flows is called an electrical circuit.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS

A complete Electrical Circuit is required in order to make electricity practical. Electrons
must flow from and return to the power source.

There are three different circuit types, all require the same basic components:
1. Power Source is needed to supply the flow of electrons (electricity).
2. Protection Device prevents damage to the circuit in the event of a short.
3. Load Device converts the electricity into work.
4. Control Device allows the user control to turn the circuit on or off
5. Conductors provide an electrical path to and from the power source.

BASIC CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

1. Power Source (Battery, Alternator, Generator, etc.)
2. Protection Device (Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit Breaker)
3. Load Device (Lamp, Motor, Winding, Resistor, etc.
4. Control (Switch, Relay, or Transistor)
5. Conductors (A Return Path, Wiring to Ground)

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LOADS
The illustration below has a horn in place of the lamp. Any device such as a lamp, horn,
wiper motor, or rear window defogger, that consumes electricity is called a load. In an
electrical circuit, all loads are regarded as resistance. Loads use up voltage and control
the amount of current flowing in a circuit. Loads with high resistance cause less current
to flow while those with lower resistance allow high current rates to flow.

AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

In an automotive electrical circuit, one end of the wire from each load returning to the
battery is connected to the vehicle body or frame. Therefore, the vehicle body or frame
itself functions as a conductor, allowing current to flow though the body or frame and
back to the battery. The body or frame is then referred to as the body ground (or earth)
of the circuit (meaning that part of the circuit that returns the current to the battery).

WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits.
Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical problem
diagnosis and repair.

OHM'S LAW
Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage
goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the
current goes down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical
troubleshooting. But calculating precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not
always practical ... nor, really needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of
Ohm's Law would be to simply apply the concepts involved:

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SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low,
normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be high
if resistance is low, or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too high,
current will be high.

CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the

resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high,
current will be low.

RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or
too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too
high, current will be low if voltage is okay.

NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current
goes up as resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up.
Bypassed devices reduce resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase
resistance, causing low current.

OHM'S LAW FORMULA

When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit. The following
special relationship exists among the voltage, current and resistance within the circuit:
the size of the current that flows in a circuit varies in proportion to the voltage which is
applied to the circuit, and in inverse proportion to the resistance through which it must
pass. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows:
E=IR
Voltage = Current x Resistance
E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V)
I Current flowing in the circuit, in amperes (A)
R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms
In practical terms "V = I x R" which means
"Voltage = Current x Resistance".
1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance.

NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How you learned
Ohm's law will determine which one you will use. Personal preference is the only
difference; anyone will get you the correct answer.

OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT

Mathematical formulas can be difficult for many who don't use them regularly. Most
people can remember a picture easier than a mathematical formula. By using the Ohms
law symbol below, anyone can remember the correct formula to use. By knowing any two
values you can figure out the third. Simply put your finger over the portion of the symbol
you are trying to figure out and you have your formula.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

APPLICATIONS OF OHM'S LAW As an application of Ohm's law, any voltage V, current

I or resistance R in an electrical circuit can be determined without actually measuring it if
the two others values are known.

This law can be used to determine the amount of current I flowing in the circuit when
voltage V is applied to resistance R. As stated previously, Ohm's law is:

Current = Voltage / Resistance.

In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 2 and voltage V that is applied to it is
12 V. Then, current I flowing in the circuit can be determined as follows:

This law can also be used to determine the voltage V that is needed to permit current I to
pass through resistance R: V = I x R (Voltage= Current x Resistance).

In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 4 ohms. The voltage V that is
necessary to permit a current I of 3 A to pass through the resistance can be determined
as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

Still another application of the law can be used to determine the resistance R when the
voltage V which is applied to the circuit and current I flowing in the circuit are already
known:

In the following circuit, assume that a voltage V of 12 V is applied to the circuit and
current I of 4 A flows in it. Then, the resistance value R of the resistance or load can be
determined as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
TYPES OF CIRCUITS
Individual electrical circuits normally combine one or more resistance or load devices.
The design of the automotive electrical circuit will determine which type of circuit is used.
There are three basic types of circuits:
1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel Circuit
3. Series-Parallel Circuit

SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is the simplest circuit. The conductors, control and protection devices,
loads, and power source are connected with only one path to ground for current flow.
The resistance of each device can be different. The same amount of current will flow
through each. The voltage across each will be different. If the path is broken, no current
flows and no part of the circuit works. Christmas tree lights are a good example; when
one light goes out the entire string stops working.

SERIES CIRCUITS
A Series Circuit has only one path to ground, so electrons must go through each
component to get back to ground. All loads are placed in series.
Therefore:
1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit.
2. The voltage divides (shared) between the loads.
3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit.
4. The resistance of each load can be different.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
SERIES CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
If, for example, two or more lamps (resistances R1 and R2, etc.) are connected in a
circuit as follows, there is only one route that the current can take. This type of
connection is called a series connection. The value of current I is always the same at any
point in a series circuit.

The combined resistance RO in this circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistance R1
and R2. In other words: The total resistance (RO) is equal to the sum of all resistances
(R1 + R2 + R3 + .......)

Therefore, the strength of current (I) flowing in the circuit can be found as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which are connected in series in
the circuit as illustrated) and current I flowing in this circuit can be determined as
follows:

VOLTAGE DROP
A voltage drop is the amount of voltage or electrical pressure that is used or given
up as electrons pass through a resistance (load). All voltage will be used up in the
circuit. The sum of the voltage drops will equal source voltage. A voltage drop
measurement is done by measuring the voltage before entering the load and the
voltage as it leaves the load. The difference between these two voltage readings is
the voltage drop.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

VOLTAGE DROP TOTAL

When more than one load exists in a circuit, the voltage divides and will be shared
among the loads. The sum of the voltage drops equal source voltage. The higher the
resistance the higher the voltage drop. Depending on the resistance, each load will have
a different voltage drop.

0V + 5V + 7V + 0V = 12V

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION

When current flows in a circuit, the presence of a resistance in that circuit will cause the
voltage to fall or drop as it passes through the resistance. The resultant difference in the
voltage on each side of the resistance is called a voltage drop. When current (I) flows in
the following circuit, voltage drops V1 and V2 across resistances R1 and R2 can be
determined as follows from Ohm's law. (The value of current I is the same for both R1
and R2 since they are connected in series.)

The sum of the voltage drops across all resistances is equal to the voltage of the power
source (VT):

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
The voltage drop across resistances R1 and R2 in the following circuit can be determined
as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A parallel circuit has more than one path for current flow. The same voltage is applied
across each branch. If the load resistance in each branch is the same, the current in each
branch will be the same. If the load resistance in each branch is different, the current in
each branch will be different. If one branch is broken, current will continue flowing to the
other branches.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A Parallel Circuit has multiple paths or branches to ground. Therefore:
1. In the event of an open in the circuit in one of the branches, current will continue
to flow through the remaining.
2. Each branch receives source voltage.
3. Current flow through each branch can be different.
4. The resistance of each branch can be different.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
In parallel connection, two or more resistances (R1, R2, etc.) are connected in a
circuit as follows, with one end of each resistance connected to the high (positive) side
of the circuit, and one end connected to the low (negative) side. Full battery voltage is
applied to all resistances within a circuit having a parallel connection.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2) in a parallel connection can be
determined as follows:

From the above, the total current I flowing in this circuit can be determined from Ohm's
law as follows:

The total current I is also equal to the sum of currents I1 and I2 flowing through
individual resistances R1 and R2

Since battery voltage V is applied equally to all resistances, the strength of currents I1
and I2 can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
Resistance RO (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which are connected
in parallel in the circuit as shown below), the total current I flowing in the circuit, and
currents I1 and I2 flowing through resistances R1 and R2, can be determined
respectively as follows:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A series-parallel circuit has some components in series and others in parallel. The power
source and control or protection devices are usually in series; the loads are usually in
parallel. The same current flows in the series portion, different currents in the parallel
portion. The same voltage is applied to parallel devices, different voltages to series
devices. If the series portion is broken, current stops flowing in the entire circuit. If a
parallel branch is broken, current continues flowing in the series portion and thremaining
banches.

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A resistance and lamps may be connected in a circuit as illustrated below. This type of
connecting method is called series-parallel connection, and is a combination of series and
parallel connections. The interior dash board lights are a good example. By adjusting the
rheostat, you can increase or decrease the brilliance of the lights.

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits

The combined resistance R02 in this series-parallel connection can be determined in the
following order:

a. Determine combined resistance R01, which is a combination of resistances R2 and R3

connected in parallel.

b. Then, determine resistance R02, which is a combination of resistance R1 and

combined resistance R01 connected in series.

Total current I flowing in the circuit can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:

The voltage applied to R2 and R3 can be found by the following formula:

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 CH 1 : Electric circuits
Currents I1, I2 and I flowing through resistances R1, R2 and R3 in the series-parallel
connection, as shown below, can be determined as follows:

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 CHAPTER 2
CONTROL DEVICES

Orascom training academy

 CH 2 : Control Devices

CONTROLS
Control devices are used to "turn on" or "turn off" current flow in an electrical circuit.
Control devices include a variety of switches, relays, and solenoids.
Electronic control devices include capacitors, diodes, and transistors, but those
will be discussed in another training module.
Control devices are needed to start, stop, or redirect current flow in an electrical circuit.
Most switches require physical movement for operation while relays and solenoids are
operated with electromagnetism.

1. SWITCHES
1. Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
2. Single Pole Double Throw (SPST)
3. Multiple Pole Multiple Throw (MPMT or Gang Switch)
4. Momentary Contact
5. Mercury
6. Temperature (Bimetal)
7. Time Delay
8. Flasher
2. RELAYS
3. SOLENOIDS

1. SWITCHES

A switch is the most common circuit control device. Switches usually have two or more
sets of contacts. Opening these contacts is called "break" or "open" the circuit, Closing
the contacts is called "make" or "completing" the circuit.
Switches are described by the number of Poles and Throws they have. "Poles" refer to
the number of input circuit terminals while "Throws" refer to the number of output
circuit terminal. Switches are referred to as SPST (single-pole, single-throw), SPDT
(single-pole, double-throw), or MPMT (multiple-pole, multiple-throw).

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1. SINGLE POLE SINGLE THROW (SPST)

The simplest type of switch is a "hinged pawl" or "knife blade" switch. It either
"completes" (turn on) or "breaks" (turn off) the circuit in a single circuit. This switch has
a single input pole and a single output throw.

2. SINGLE POLE DOUBLE THROW (SPDT)

A single-pole input, double-throw output switch has one wire going it and two wires
coming out. A Headlamp dimmer switch is a good example of a single-pole
double-throw switch. The switch sends current to either the high-beams or low-beams
of the headlight circuit.

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 CH 2 : Control Devices

3. MULTIPLE POLE MULTIPLE THROW (MPMT)

Multiple-Pole input, Multiple-Throw output switches, which are also known as "gang"
switches, have movable contacts in wired in parallel. These switches move together to
supply different sets of output contacts with current. An ignition switch is a good example
of a multiple-pole multiple-throw switch. Each switch sends current from different source
to different output circuits at the same time depending on position. The dotted line
between the switches indicates they move together; one will not move without the other
moving as well.

4. MOMENTARY CONTACT
The momentary contact switch has a spring-loaded contact that keeps it from making the
circuit except when pressure is applied to the button. This is a "normally open" type
(shown below). A horn switch is a good example of a momentary contact switch. Push the
horn button and the hold sounds; release the button and the horn stops.
A variation of this type is the normally closed (not shown) which works the opposite as
described above. The spring holds the contacts closed except when the button is pressed.
In other words the circuit is "ON" until the button is pushed to break the circuit.

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5. MERCURY
A mercury switch is made of a sealed capsule that is partially filled with mercury. In one
end of the capsule are two electrical contacts. As the switch is rotated (moved from true
vertical) the mercury flows to the opposite end of the capsule with the contacts,
completing the circuit. Mercury switches are often be used to detect motion, such as the
one used in the engine compartment on the light. Other uses include fuel cut off for
roll-overs, and some air bag sensor applications. Mercury is a hazardous waste and
should be handled with care.

6. BI-METALLIC
A temperature-sensitive switch, also known as a "bi-metallic" switch, usually contains a
bimetal element that bends when heated to make contact completing a circuit or to break
contact opening a circuit. In an engine coolant temperature switch, when the coolant
reaches the temperature limit, the bimetal element bends causing the contacts in the
switch to close. This completes the circuit and lights the warning indicator on the
instrument panel.

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 CH 2 : Control Devices

7. TIME DELAY SWITCH

The time delay switch contains a bimetal strip, contacts, and a heating element. The time
delay switch is normally closed. As current flows through the switch, current flows
through the heating element causing it to heat, which causes the bimetal strip to bend
and open the contacts. As current continues to flows through the heating element, the
bimetal strip is kept hot, keeping the switch contacts open. The amount of time delay
before the contacts open is determined by the characteristics of the bimetal strip and the
amount of heat produced by the heating element. When power to the switch is turned off,
the heating element cools and the bimetal strip returns to the rest position and the
contacts are closed. A common application for a time delay switch is the rear window
defroster.

[Link]
The flasher operates basically the same as the time delay switch; except when the
contacts open, current stops flowing through the heating element. This causes the
heating element and bimetal strip to cool. The bimetal strip returns to the rest position
which closes the contacts, allowing current to flow through the contacts and heating
element again. This cycle repeats over and over until power to the flasher is eliminated.
Common uses for this type of switch are the turn signals or the four-way flasher (hazard
lamps).

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 CH 2 : Control Devices

2. RELAYS

A relay is simply a remote-control switch, which uses a small amount of current to control
a large amount of current. A typical relay has both a control circuit and a power
circuit. Relay construction contains an iron core, electromagnetic coil, and an armature
(moveable contact set). There are two types of relays: normally open (shown below)
and normally closed (NOT shown). A Normally open (N.O.) relay has contacts that are
"open" until the relay is energized while a normally closed (N.C.) relay has contacts that
are "closed" until the relay is energized.

RELAY OPERATION
Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The iron
core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and
pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source to go to the
load. When the coil is not energized, the contacts are open, and no power goes to the
load. When the control circuit switch is closed, however, current flows to the relay and
energizes the coil. The resulting magnetic field pulls the armature down, closing the
contacts and allowing power to the load. Many relays are used for controlling high current
in one circuit with low current in another circuit. An example would be a computer, which
controls a relay, and the relay controls a higher current circuit.

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 CH 2 : Control Devices

3. SOLENOIDS

SOLENOIDS - PULLING TYPE

A solenoid is an electromagnetic switch that converts current flow into mechanical
movement. As current flows through the winding a magnetic field is created. The
magnetic field will pull the moveable iron core into the center of the winding. This type of
solenoid is called a "pulling" type solenoid, as the magnetic field pulls the moveable iron
core into the coil. A common use for pulling solenoids are in the starting system. The
starter solenoid engages the starter with the flywheel.

SOLENOIDS - PULLING TYPE OPERATION

As current flows through the winding a magnetic field is created. These magnetic lines of
force want to be as small as possible. If an iron core is placed near the coil that has
current flowing through it, the magnetic field will stretch out like a rubber band, reaching
out and pulling the iron bar into the center of the coil.

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 CH 2 : Control Devices

SOLENOIDS - PUSH/PULL TYPE

In a "push-pull" type solenoid, a permanent magnet is used for the core. Since "like"
magnetic charges repel and "unlike" magnetic charges attract, by changing the direction
of current flow through the coil, the core is either "pulled in" or "pushed out." A common
use for this type of solenoid is on electric door locks.

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 CHAPTER 3
FUSES

Orascom training academy

 CH 3 : Fuses

Fuses

CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Circuit protection devices are used to protect wires and connectors from being damaged by
excess current flow caused by an over current or short-circuit. Excess current causes excess
heat, which causes circuit protection to "open circuit".

CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

Fuses, fuse elements, fusible links, and circuit breakers are used as circuit protection devices.
Circuit protection devices are available in a variety of types, shapes, and specific current ratings.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSES
A fuse is the most common protection device. A fuse is placed in an electrical circuit, so tht when
current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse it "blows" or "blows out". The element in the fuse
melts, opening the circuit and preventing other components of the circuit from being damaged by
the overcurrent. The size of the metal fuse element determines the rating. Remember excessive
current causes excess heat, and it's heat and not the current that causes the circuit protector to
open. Once a fuse "blows" it must be replaced with a new one.

FUSE LOCATIONS
Fuses are located throughout the entire vehicle. Common locations include the engine
compartment, behind the left or right kick panels, or under the dash. Fuses are usually grouped
together and are often mixed in with other components like relays, circuit breakers, and fuse
elements.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSE BLOCK COVERS

Fuse / relay block covers usually label the location and position of each fuse, relay, and fuse
element contained within.

FUSE TYPES
Fuses are classified into basic categories: blade type fuses or cartridge type fuses. Several
variations of each are used.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

COMMON FUSE TYPES

The blade fuse and fuse element are by far the most commonly used today. Three different types
of blade fuses exist: The Maxi Fuse, The Standard ATO fuse, and the Mini fuse. The fuse element
has replaced the fusible link and will be explained later.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION
The blade type fuse is a compact design with a metal element and transparent insulating housing
which is color-coded for each current rating. (Standard ATO shown below: however construction
of both the mini and maxi fuses are the same.)

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSE AMPERAGE COLOR RATING

Fuse amperage color ratings for both the mini and standard ATO fuses are identical. However,
the amperage color ratings of maxi fuses use a different color scheme.

Color rating for STANDARD and MINI fuses

Fuse Amp Rating Identification color

3 Violet

5 Tan

7.5 Brown

10 Red

15 Blue

20 Yellow

25 Colorless

30 Green

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 CH 3 : Fuses

MAXI STANDARD MINI

Color rating for MAXI fuses

Fuse Amp Rating Identification Color

20 Yellow

30 Green

40 Amber

50 Red

60 Blue

70 Brown

80 Colorless

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OLDER TYPE FUSES

Many older vehicles, both foreign and domestic, use glass or ceramic fuse cartridges that were
either color coded or stamped on case for current ratings. Glass fuses were used on older
domestic vehicles while the ceramic were used on most older European vehicles. Ceramic fuses
have an amperage color rating system while glass fuses have the amperage ratings stamped into
one of the metal end caps.

FUSIBLE LINKS AND FUSE ELEMENTS

Fusible links are divided into two categories: the fuse element cartridge and the fusible link. The
construction and function of fusible links and fuse elements are similar to that of a fuse. The main
difference is that the fusible link and fuse element are used to protect higher amperage electrical
circuits, generally circuits 30 amps or higher. As with fuses, once a fusible link or fuse element
blows out, it must be replaced with a new one.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSE ELEMENT CARTRIDGE

Fuse elements, a cartridge type fusible link, are also known as a Pacific fuses. The element has
the terminal and fusing portion as a unit. Fuse elements have replaced fusible links for the most
part. The housing is color coded for each current rating. Although, fuse elements are available in
two physical sizes and are either plug in or bolt on design, the plug-in type is the most popular.

FUSE ELEMENT CARTRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

Construction of the fuse element is quite simple. A colored plastic housing contains the fusing
portion element which can be viewed through a clear top. Fuse ratings are also stamped on the
case.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSE ELEMENT COLOR IDENTIFICATION

Fuse amperage color ratings are shown below. The fusing portion of the fuse element is visible
through a clear window. The amperage ratings are also listed on the fuse element.

Fuse element color ratings

AMPERE RATING IDENTIFICATION COLOR
30 Pink
40 Green
50 Red
60 Yellow
80 Black
100 Blue

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSIBLE ELEMENTS
Fusible elements are often located near the battery by themselves.

FUSIBLE ELEMENTS
Fusible elements can also be located in relay / fuse boxes in the engine compartment.

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 CH 3 : Fuses

FUSIBLE LINKS
Fusible links are short pieces of a smaller diameter wire designed to melt during an over current
condition. A fusible link is usually four (4) wire sizes smaller than the circuit that it is protecting.
The insulation of a fusible link is a special nonflammable material. This allows the wire to melt,
but the insulation to remain intact for safety. Some fusible links have a tag at one end that
indicates its rating. Like fuses, fusible links must be replaced after they have "blown" or melted
opened. Many manufacturers have replaced fusible links with fuse elements or maxi fuses.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers are used in place of fuses for the protection of complicated power circuits such as
the power windows, sunroofs and heater circuits. Three types of circuit breakers exist: The
manual reset type - mechanical, the automatic resetting type - mechanical, and the automatically
reset solid state type - PTC. Circuit breakers are usually located in relay/fuse boxes; however,
some components like power window motors have circuit breakers built in.

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 CHAPTER 4
Relays

Orascom training academy

 CH 4 : Relays

Relays

RELAYS
Relays are used throughout the automobile. Relays which come in assorted sizes, ratings, and
applications, are used as remote control switches. A typical vehicle can have 20 relays or more.

RELAY LOCATIONS
Relays are located throughout the entire vehicle. Relay blocks, both large and small, are located in
the engine compartment; behind the left or right kick panels, or under the dash are common
locations. Relays are often grouped together or with other components like fuses or placed by
themselves.

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 CH 4 : Relays

RELAY POSITION IDENTIFICATION

Relay / Fuse block covers usually label the location and position of each fuse, relay, or fuse
element contained within.

RELAY APPLICATIONS
Relays are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch, such as a horn
switch or a computer as in a power train control module. Relays allow a small current flow circuit
to control a higher current circuit. Several designs of relays are in use today, 3pin, 4-pin, 5-pin,
and 6-pin, single switch or dual switches.

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 CH 4 : Relays

RELAY OPERATION
All relays operate using the same basic principle. Our example will use a commonly used 4 pin
relay. Relays have two circuits: A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load circuit (shown in
RED). The control circuit has a small control coil while the load circuit has a switch. The coil
controls the operation of the switch.

RELAY ENERGIZED (ON)

Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small magnetic field which
causes the switch to close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is part of the load circuit, is used to
control an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flows through pins 2 and 4 shown
in RED, when the relay in energized.

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RELAY DE-ENERGIZED (OFF)

When current stops flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the relay becomes
de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented from flowing
through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now OFF.

RELAY OPERATION
When no voltage is applied to pin 1, there is no current flow through the coil. No current means no
magnetic field is developed, and the switch is open. When voltage is supplied to pin 1, current flow
though the coil creates the magnetic field needed to close the switch allowing continuity between
pins 2 and 4.

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RELAY DESIGN ID
Relays are either Normally Open or Normally Closed. Notice the position of the switches in the two
relays shown below. Normally open relays have a switch that remains open until energized (ON)
while normally closed relays are closed until energized. Relays are always shown in the
de-energized position (no current flowing through the control circuit - OFF). Normally open relays
are the most common in vehicles; however either can be use in automotive applications.

Normally Open (NO) Normally Closed (NC)

NORMALLY CLOSED RELAYS

The operation of a Normally Closed relay is the same to that of a Normally Open relay, except
backwards. In other words, when the relay control coil is NOT energized, the relay switch contacts
are closed, completing the circuit through pins 2 and 4. When the control coil is energized, the
relay switch contacts opens, which breaks the circuit open and no continuity exists between pins 2
and 4.

DE - ENERGIZED (OFF) ENERGIZED (ON)

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ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN

Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The iron core
intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and pulls it down,
closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source to go to the load.

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RELAY VARIATIONS
Other relay variations include three and five pin relays. A 3-PIN relay instead of two B+ input
sources, this relay has one B+ input at pin 1. Current splits inside the relay, supplying power to
both the control and load circuits. A 5-PIN relay has a single control circuit, but two separate
current paths for the switch: One when the relay is de-energized (OFF - no current through the
control coil) and the other the energized (ON - current is flowing through the control coil). When
the 5-PIN relay is de-energized (OFF), pins 4 and 5 have continuity. When the relay is energized
(ON), pins 3 and 5 have continuity.

3 - PIN 4 - PIN 5 - PIN

ISO STANDARDIZED RELAYS

ISO relays were designed to try and standardize relay connections, making it easier to test and
design systems. ISO relays are currently used by almost all automotive manufacturers today. Both
4 and 5 pin designs are used in both standard mini and micro sizes. FYI: ISO is short for
International Standard Organization.

STANDARD MINI SHOWN

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STANDARD MINI ISO RELAYS TYPES

Below are two popular standard MINI ISO relay configurations. The size of a ISO Standard MINI
relay is a 1" square cube. Both 4 and 5 pins designs are used.

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ISO MICRO RELAY TYPES

Below are two popular MICRO ISO relay configurations. The size of a ISO MICRO relay is a 1" x 1"
x 1/2" square (1/2 as thick as a Mini relay). Both 4 and 5 pins designs are used.

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VOLTAGE SPIKES
When the switch is closed (shown left), current flows through the coil from positive to negative as
shown in red. This current flow creates a magnetic field around the coil. The top of the coil is
positive, and the bottom is negative.
When the switch is opened (shown on right), current stops flowing through the control circuit coil,
and the magnetic field surrounding the coil cannot be maintained. As the magnetic field collapses
across the coil, it induces a voltage into itself, creating a reverse polarity voltage spike of several
hundred volts. Although the top of the coil is still 12 volts positive, the bottom of the coil produces
several hundred positive volts (200+ volts or more); 200 is "more positive" and stronger than 12
volts, so current flows from the bottom of the coil up towards the top.

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VOLTAGE SUPPRESSION RELAYS

Relays are often controlled by a computer. When relays are controlled by semiconductors such as
transistors, they require some type of voltage suppression device. Solid state circuits are
vulnerable to voltage spikes. Voltage spikes slam against transistors, destroying them. While some
computer circuits have voltage suppression built inside the computer, others rely on voltage
suppression from within the relay. High ohm resistors, diodes, or capacitors can be used for
voltage suppression. Diodes and resistors are the most common. NOTE: Relays are usually clearly
marked if a suppression diode or resistor are present.

RELAYS WITH DE-SPIKING DIODES

A de-spiking (clamping) diode is connected in parallel with the relay coil. It is in the reverse biased
position when the relay is turned on; therefore no current will flow through the diode. When the
relay control circuit is opened (turned OFF), current stops flowing through the coil, causing the
magnetic field to collapse. The magnetic lines of force cut through the coil and induce a counter
voltage (a voltage in reverse polarity) into the winding. The counter voltage begins to raise. When
the bottom side of the diode sees .7 volts more positive voltage than the top, the diode becomes
forward biased, allowing the excess voltage to pass, completing the circuit to the other end of the
coil. The current flows around in the diode and coil circuit until the voltage is dissipated.

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RELAYS WITH DE-SPIKING RESISTORS

High ohm resistors are sometimes used instead of diodes. A resistor is more durable than a diode
and can suppress voltage spikes similar to a diode, but the resistor will allow current to flow
through it whenever the relay is on. Therefore resistance of the resistor must be fairly high (about
600 ohms) in order to prevent too much current flow in the circuit. High ohm resistors are not
quite as efficient at suppressing a voltage spike as diodes.

CIRCUIT IDENTIFICATION
Relays are easy to test but often misunderstood. Using a 4 pin relay for our example, we must
first identify the pins. Some manufacturers place a diagram and pin ID on the outside of the relay
case to show which pins are part of the control circuit and which pins are part of the load circuit.

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CONTINUITY CHECK FOR ID

If the relay is not labeled, use an ohmmeter and check to see which pins are connected to each
other. You should typically find an ohm value of approximately 50 to 120 ohms between two of the
pins. This is the control circuit. If the coil is less that 50 ohms it could be suspect. Refer to manual
to verify reading. The remaining two pins should read OL (infinite) if it's a normally open relay, or
0 ohms (continuity) if it's a normally closed relay. If the readings are correct, proceed to the next
test. Note: If none of the relay pins showed a coil value and all pins show OL or 0 ohms, the
control coil is damaged and should be replaced.

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PRACTICAL TESTING
Once the pins have been identified, energize the control circuit by supplying B+ to pin 1 and a
ground to pin 3. A faint "click" will be heard; although this "click" means the switch has moved
(closed), it does not mean the relay is good. The load circuit switch contacts could still be faulty
(high resistance), and further testing is required. A common mistake technicians make is they
hear a "click" and assume the relay is good. Take the extra step and verify operation.

ATIONAL CHECK WITH TESTLIGHT

Now start the second part of the test. Energize the relay (control side) by supplying B+ to pin 1
and a ground to pin 3. A click should be heard. With the relay still energized, supply B+ pin 2 of
the load circuit. The test light will be on. De-energize (remove B+) the control circuit at pin 1; the
test light at pin 4 should go off. A test light is preferred because a test light will draw current
through the switch.

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OPERATIONAL CHECK WITH VOLTMETER

A voltmeter can be substituted in place of a test light; however be aware if the contacts are
partially burned, the voltmeter will show voltage indicating good contact even when bad.
Remember high impedance digital voltmeters draw almost no current. Energize the relay (control
side) by supplying B+ to pin 1 and a ground to pin 3. A click should be heard. With the relay still
energized supply B+ to pin 2 of the load circuit. Connect the RED lead to pin 4 and the BLACK lead
to ground. The voltmeter will indicate source voltage (12V). De-energize (remove B+) the control
circuit at pin 1; the voltmeter should now read "zero". Reenergize the relay and the voltmeter
should return to 12 volts.

CAUTION
Testing relays with built in clamping diodes require a special procedure. These relays are polarity
sensitive; placing B+ to the wrong pin (backwards) while performing a practical test will forward
bias the diode and damage the diode, thus destroying the protective quality of the diode.

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OPERATIONAL CHECK WITH AN OHMMETER

An ohmmeter can also be used to test the load circuit, but the same problem as the voltmeter
comes into play. Energize the relay (control side). Supply B+ to pin 1 and a ground (neg.) to pin
3. A click should be heard. Place the leads on an ohmmeter to across pin 2 and pin 4. Assuming it
is a normally open relay the ohmmeter will indicate a complete circuit (close to zero -0 ohms).
De-energize the control circuit at pin 1(remove B+). The ohmmeter should indicate OL (an open
circuit - infinite). Re-energize the relay and the ohmmeter should return to "zero" ohms. Note:
some manufactures provide a maximum ohm value when the switch contacts are closed, example
5 ohms max.

CAUTION
Testing relays with built in clamping diodes require a special procedure. These relays are polarity
sensitive; placing B+ to the wrong pin (backwards) while performing a practical test will forward
bias the diode and damage the diode, thus destroying the protective quality of the diode.

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 CHAPTER 5
Batteries

Orascom training academy

 CH 5 : BATTERIES

BATTERIES

THE AUTOMOTIVE BATTERY

A lead-acid storage battery is an electrochemical device that
produces voltage and delivers electrical current. The battery
is the primary "source" of electrical energy used in vehicles
today. It's important to remember that a battery does not
store electricity, but rather it stores a series of chemicals,
and through a chemical process electricity is produced.
Basically, two different types of lead in an acid mixture react
to produce an electrical pressure called voltage. This
electrochemical reaction changes chemical energy to
electrical energy and is the basis for all automotive
batteries.

THE PURPOSE OF THE BATTERY

The battery supplies electricity when the:

ENGINE IS OFF: Electricity from the battery is used to operate lighting, accessories, or
other electrical systems when the engine is not running.

ENGINE IS STARTING: Electricity from the battery is used to operate the starter motor
and to provide current for the ignition system during engine cranking. Starting the car is
the battery's most important function.

ENGINE IS RUNNING: Electricity from the battery may be needed to supplement the
charging system when the vehicle's electrical load requirements exceed the charging
system's ability to produce electricity. Both the battery and the alternator supply
electricity when demand is high.

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BATTERIES - Primary or Secondary

Batteries can either be a primary cell, such as a flashlight battery once used, throw it
away, or a secondary cell, such as a car battery (when the charge is gone, it can be
recharged).

PRIMARY CELL: Because the chemical reaction totally destroys one of the metals after
a period of time, primary cells cannot be recharged. Small batteries such as flashlight
and radio batteries are primary cells.

SECONDARY CELL: The metal plates and acid mixture change as the battery supplies
voltage. As the battery drains the metal plates become similar and the acid strength
weakens. This process is called discharging. By applying current to the battery in the
reverse direction, the battery materials can be restored, thus recharging the battery.
This process is called charging. Automotive lead-acid batteries are secondary cells and
can be recharged.

BATTERIES - Wet or Dry Charged

Batteries can be produced as Wet-Charged, such as current automotive batteries are
today, or they can be Dry-Charged, such as a motorcycle battery where an electrolyte
solution is added when put into service.

WET-CHARGED: The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and charged when it is
built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will cause self-discharge. Periodic
charging is required. Most batteries sold today are wet charged.

DRY-CHARGED: The battery is built, charged, washed and dried, sealed, and shipped
without electrolyte. It can be stored for up to 18 months. When put into use, electrolyte
and charging are required. Batteries of this type have a long shelf life. Motorcycle
batteries are typically dry charged batteries.

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION
An automobile battery contains a diluted sulfuric acid electrolyte and positive and
negative electrodes, in the form of several plates. Since the plates are made of lead or
lead-derived materials, this type of battery is often called a lead acid battery. A battery
is separated into several cells (usually six in the case of automobile batteries), and in
each cell there are several battery elements, all bathed in the electrolyte solution.

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CELL OPERATION
Two dissimilar metals placed in an acid bath produce electrical potential across the poles.
The cell produces voltage by a chemical reaction between the plates and the electrolyte.
The positive plate is made of reddish-brown material such as Lead Dioxide (PBO2) while
the negative plate is made of grayish material called Sponge Lead (PB). The acid bath is
a mixture of sulfuric acid and water cell electrolyte. Together a cell element is formed.

CYCLING
The battery stores electricity in the form of chemical energy. Through a chemical
reaction process the battery creates and releases electricity as needed by the electrical
system or devices. Since the battery loses its chemical energy in this process, the
battery must be recharged by the alternator. By reversing electrical current flow through
the battery the chemical process is reversed, thus charging the battery. The cycle of
discharging and charging is repeated continuously and is called "battery cycling".

DEEP CYCLING
Although batteries do cycle continuously, they do not cycle deeply. Deep cycling is when
the battery is completely discharged before recharge.

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Automotive batteries are not designed as deep cycle batteries. Automotive batteries
are designed to be fully charged when starting the car; after starting the vehicle, the lost
charge is replaced by the alternator. So the battery remains fully charged. Deep cycling
an automotive battery will cause damage to the plates and shorten battery life.

Marine or golf cart batteries (Deep Cycle Batteries) on the other hand are designed
to be completely discharged before recharging. Because charging causes excessive heat
which can warp the plates, thicker and stronger plate grids are used. Normal automotive
batteries are not designed for repeated deep cycling and use thinner plates.

CELL VOLTAGE
Each cell element of the battery produces approximately 2.1 volts, regardless of the
quantity or size of the plates. Automobile batteries have six cells that are connected in
series, which produces a total voltage of 12.6 volts.

BATTERY CELL ELEMENT

The key to battery operation is the cell element. Positive plates and negative plates are
each connected together by separate plate straps. These groups of positive and negative
plates are then placed alternately, separated by micro-porous separators. Assembled
together, the plates and separators form a battery cell element. Grouping the plates in
this way serves to enlarge the surface area between the active materials and the
electrolyte, thus allowing a greater amount of electricity to be supplied. In other words,
the battery capacity is increased because of the increase in surface area. More plate
surface area means the battery can deliver more current.

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PLATES
Battery plates are constructed of a lead alloy containing a percentage of either Antimony
or Calcium. The plates are designed as a thin flat grid, grids crossing at right angles
(shown below) or grids crossing diagonally at different angles which reduces internal
resistance. The grid provides the necessary framework for active material to be pasted
onto the plate, making either a positive or a negative plate. The active material on a
charged positive plate is a reddish-brown Lead Dioxide (PBO2), while the active material
on a charged negative plate is a grayish Sponge Lead (PB).

GEL CELL BATTERIES

A gel battery design is typically a modification of the standard lead acid automotive. A
gelling agent is added to the electrolyte to reduce movement inside the battery case.
Many gel batteries also use one way valves in place of open vents, this helps the normal
internal gasses to recombine back into water in the battery, reducing gassing. The spiral
design provides more plate surface area and closer plate spacing resulting in a lower
internal resistance. This low resistance provides more power in a smaller battery case
and the ability to recharge much faster.

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BATTERIES - Antimony, Calcium, or Gel

Several variations of the Lead -Acid battery are used today. Variations to the battery
plate material and electrolyte solution provide different battery characteristics.
Construction is basically the same; however, the materials used are slightly different.

1. Lead Antimony ( Most commonly used ).

Is commonly used in conventional lead acid battery which uses lead antimony cell plates.

Advantages:
1. Longer service life than Calcium batteries.
2. Easier to recharge when completely discharged.
3. Lower cost.

2. Lead Calcium ( AC Delco maintenance free batteries ).

Is a maintenance free lead acid battery which uses lead calcium cell plates.

Advantages:
1. Larger electrolyte reserve area above the plates.
2. Higher Cold Cranking Amp ratings.
3. Little or No maintenance.

3. Recombination (Gel Cell) ( Optima batteries and some others ).

Is a completely sealed lead acid battery which uses an electrolyte that is a gel (solid)
rather than a liquid.

Advantages:
1. No liquid electrolyte to spill or leak.
2. Can be Deep Cycled several time without damage.
3. Totally corrosion and maintenance free.
4. Three to four times longer battery life than regular batteries.
5. More plate surface and closer plate spacing provides a compact case size.

LEAD ANTIMONY VS. LEAD CALCIUM

Lead-Antimony Cast Grid

Conventional Low-Maintenance batteries use grids of Lead-antimony which is readily
available, inexpensive, easy to cast, and provide a rechargeable battery that offers
optimum efficiency and low cost. Lead antimony is used in Low-Maintenance
batteries. Such batteries are built to reduce internal heat and water loss. Battery
construction provides a deeper well area to allow a slight water loss over the life of the
battery. Under normal conditions, the addition of water should not be required.

Lead-Calcium Grid
The maintenance-free batteries, such as Delco Freedom batteries, uses calcium. The
lead-calcium grid is strong, more resistant to corrosion as well as overcharging, gassing,
water usage, and self-discharge, all of which shorten battery life in conventional lead-
acid batteries. Lead calcium is used in Maintenance Free batteries. Battery
construction provides a deeper well area to allow a slight water loss over the life of the
battery. No provision for adding water to the cells is provided because the battery is
sealed.

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ELECTROLYTE
Battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water (H20) and 36% sulfuric acid
(SO4). Batteries today have an electrolyte with a specific gravity of 1.270 (at 20'C, 68'F)
when fully charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of liquid in
comparison to the weight of the same volume of water. The higher the specific gravity of
a liquid the denser (thicker) it is. Testing specific gravity will be discussed in the Battery
Service Module.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ELECTROLYTE

Specific gravity means exact weight. A "Hydrometer" or a "Refractometer" compares the
exact weight of electrolyte with that of water. Electrolyte in a charged battery is stronger
and heavier than electrolyte in a discharged battery. By weight, the electrolyte in a fully
charged battery is about 36% acid and 64% water. The specific gravity of water is
1.000, and the specific gravity of sulfuric acid is 1.835, which means the acid is 1.835
times heavier than the water. The battery electrolyte mixture of water and acid has a
specific gravity of 1.270 and is usually stated as "twelve and seventy."

BATTERY SPECIAL HANDLING

The electrolyte inside the battery is a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. Sulfuric acid is
very corrosive and can cause severe injury to your skin and eyes. Always wear
protective goggles, gloves, and apron while servicing the battery. If it gets on your skin,
flush with a large quantity of water immediately; if it gets in your eyes, flush with large
quantities of water immediately (a mild solution of baking soda and water will neutralize
the acid) and seek medical attention as soon as possible.

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Because sulfuric acid will eat through clothing, it is advisable to wear proper work
clothing when handling batteries. When charging the battery, hydrogen gas is released
so it is extremely important to keep flames or sparks away from the battery to prevent
explosion.

BATTERY CASE
The battery case holds the electrolyte and the individual battery cell elements. It is
divided into six compartments or cells. The plates are raised up off the bottom of the
case with ribs to prevent them from shorting out if any of the active materials (lead,
etc.) should happen to fall from the plates. The case is made of polypropylene, hard
rubber, and plastic base materials. Some battery manufacturers use translucent plastic
cases which allow checking electrolyte level without removing vent caps. These cases
often have "upper" and "lower" electrolyte level markers on the outside of the case.

VENT CAPS
Vent caps are used to cover the holes used for adding electrolyte. These caps are also
designed to separate the sulfuric acid mist and the hydrogen gas that forms when the
battery charges. This vent system allows sulfuric acid mist to condense and drop back
into the battery and allow hydrogen gas to escape through the vent holes to the
atmosphere. Vent caps can cover each individual cell as shown below. Note:Many Gel
Cell Batteries use a one way check valve enplane of vents.

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VENT CAP STRIPS

Most batteries today use vent cap strips that cover multiple cells (shown below). The
caps are are designed to allow hydrogen gas to escape and sulfuric acid mist to
condense and drop back into the battery.

BATTERY TERMINAL DESIGN

Three design types of battery terminals are used; the Top (Post) Terminal, Side
Terminal, and the "L" Terminal types. The top terminal design is the most popular
among automotive batteries. Top post terminal batteries have tapered posts on the top
of the battery. The side terminal design is used exclusively by General Motors, and the
"L" terminal design is used in marine applications; both have internally threaded
terminals.

BATTERY TERMINAL IDENTIFICATION

Battery terminals are identified as either "positive" or "negative". Battery cases are
marked with a "+" for the positive terminal, and a "-" on the negative terminal as shown
below. The words "POS" or "NEG" are often used instead of the + or -. On top post
terminal batteries, the positive post is slightly wider than the negative terminal post.
This allow for easy identification.

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BATTERY TERMINAL CLAMPS

Battery cable clamps are can be made of steel or lead depending on the manufacturer.
In addition, they can be attached to the cable by either crimp or bolt and nut. A crimped
one piece battery cable with clamp is the most common used today.

STEEL

BUILT IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY INDICATOR

Most maintenance free batteries use a built in single ball hydrometer that measures
specific gravity in one cell, which is located on the top of the battery.

BATTERY HOLD DOWN / CARRIER

Battery hold downs are used to stop the battery from vibrating, moving, or spilling over
while the car is in motion. Vibration will cause the battery to fail prematurely. Excessive
vibration or sharp movement will cause active material to fall off the plates ruining the
battery. The battery must always be secured. Additionally, a battery carrier or tray
underneath the battery aids in securing the battery to the vehicle.

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MANUFACTURER CODE / DATE CODE

A manufacturer's code is stamped onto the battery case at time of its manufacture. This
manufacturers code contains information as to the date of manufacture, type,
manufacturing plant, etc.

A two letter code ( B0, A9, etc.) is also placed on the battery to make it easier for
resellers and consumers to identify the production date. The code is on a sticker affixed
to the battery or hot-stampded into the case cover along the top edge. The first letter
represents the month, and the second number represents the year. The picture below
shows B9, which is February 1999. Fresh batteries are always the best. Refer to the
battery vendor or supplier for this information.

STICKER
DATE CODES
A = January
B = February
C = March
D = April
E = May
F = June
G = July
H = August
J = September
K = October
L = November
M = December

DATE CODE EXCEPTIONS

DELCO - Freedom, Voyager, and some Sears brands:

The code dates are stamped on the cover, usually near
the posts. The first character represents the year (0-9)
and the second shows the month (A-M, skipping I). For
example, 4CN1 would stand for 1994, March.

EXIDE - Napa Legend, Edge, Power-Tron and Titan: The

fourth or fifth character may be a letter code for the
month and the following character a number code for the
year (i.e. RO8F3B stands for June 1993).

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BATTERY CAPACITY RATINGS

Several battery capacity ratings have been established by the Battery Council
International (BCl) that determine the current capacity of a battery. The current capacity
is an indication of the battery's ability to develop and deliver high amperage current to
the starter and provide reserve power to the electrical system.

1) COLD CRANKING AMPS

The first battery rating is the cold cranking amps (CCA) rating. This rating indicates
the ability of a battery to deliver a specified current at low temperature. The rating is
determined by the amount of current a fully charged battery can supply for 30 seconds
at 0'F (- 17.8'C) without having the battery terminal voltage fall below 7.2 V.

2) CRANKING AMPS
The second battery rating is the cranking amps (CA) rating (not to be confused with
COLD Cranking Amps), which is the battery's ability to deliver a cranking current at 32'
F. This CA Rating is the same test as in the CCA rating, except it is calculated at
a high temperature. A battery with a CA rating of 800 may confuse a technician who
may assume it is a CCA rating number. To convert CA at 32 'F to CCA at 0 'F, divide CA
by 1.25. Example: a 650 CCA rated battery has the same current capacity as a 812 CA
rated battery. This apparent marketing ploy may confuse the public into thinking they
are purchasing a battery which is higher in capacity than it really is.

3) RESERVE CAPACITY
The third battery rating, the reserve capacity rating, is the time in minutes a vehicle
can be driven after the charging system fails. This is roughly equivalent to the conditions
after the alternator fails while the vehicle is being driven at night with the headlights on.
The battery alone must supply current to the headlights and the computer/ignition
system. The assumed battery load is a constant discharge current of 25 A. The reserve
capacity rating is the length of time a fully charged battery that is at a temperature of
80'F (26.7'C) can supply 25 A before the terminal voltage falls below 10.5 V.

4) AMPERE HOUR
The fourth battery rating, the ampere-hour rating (expressed in ampere-hours, or Ah)
is the amount of current a fully charged battery can supply for 20 hours without having
the terminal voltage fall below 10.5 V. This test is made at a temperature of 80'F
(26.7'C). If a battery can deliver 4 A under these conditions, it is an 80-Ah battery (4 A
X 20 hours = 80 Ah).

BATTERY GROUP SIZE

The Battery Council International (BCI) also determines the size group number. The BCI
size group number identifies a battery in terms of its width, length, height, terminal
design, and other physical features. Automotive manufacturers provide a designated
amount of space in the engine compartment to accommodate the battery. Battery
companies build batteries of various current-capacity ratings in a variety of sizes and
shapes. A replacement guide is used when replacing a battery because the battery must
fit into the space provided.

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BATTERY INFORMATION LABEL

The capacity rating and group size information is usually located on the manufactures
label. Additional information may also be provided.

36 VOLT BATTERIES
Soon you will find 36 volt batteries on new model vehicles. With the growing number of
electrical devices on vehicles, the number of wires keeps growing. The advantage of 36
volt batteries will be the high voltage allows devices to operate with lower current flow,
resulting in smaller wires, lightening the vehicle weight. What kind of charging system
will the 36 volt battery need? A 42 volt charging system to begin with. The higher
voltage output of the alternator will result in lower current from the alternator, resulting
in smaller or equivalent size alternators used today. Look for these being first on the
market from Mercedes or other high end cars.

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 CHAPTER 6
STARTER MOTORS

Orascom training academy

 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Starting Motors

General
Starting the engine is possibly the most important function of the vehicle's
electrical system. The starting system performs this function by changing
electrical energy from the battery to mechanical energy in the starting motor.
This motor then transfers the mechanical energy, through gears, to the
flywheel on the engine's crankshaft. During cranking, the flywheel rotates
and the air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinders, compressed, and ignited
to start the engine. Most engines require a cranking speed of about 200 rpm.
Toyota Starting Systems
Two different starting systems are used on Toyota vehicles. Both systems
have two separate electrical circuits ... a control circuit and a motor circuit.
One has a conventional starting motor.
This system is used on most older-model Toyotas. The other has a gear
reduction starting motor. This system is used on most current Toyotas. A
heavy-duty magnetic switch, or solenoid, turns the motor on and off. It is
part of both the motor circuit and the control circuit.
Both systems are controlled by the ignition switch and protected by a
fusible link. On some models, a starter relay is used in the starter control
circuit. On models with automatic transmission, a neutral start switch
prevents starting with the transmission in gear. On models with manual
transmission, a clutch switch prevents starting unless the clutch is fully
depressed. On 4WD Truck and 4-Runner models, a safety cancel switch
allows starting on hills without the clutch depressed. It does so by
establishing an alternate path to ground.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Starting System Operation

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Starting Motor Construction

GENERAL

The starter motors used on Toyota vehicles have a magnetic switch that
shifts a rotating gear (pinion gear) into and out of mesh with the ring gear on
the engine flywheel.
Two types of motors are used: conventional and gear reduction. Both are
rated by power output in kilowatts (KW) ... the greater the output, the
greater the cranking power.

CONVENTIONAL STARTER MOTOR

The conventional starter motor contains the components shown. The pinion
gear is on the same shaft as the motor armature and rotates
at the same speed. A plunger in the magnetic switch (solenoid) is
connected to a shift lever. When activated by the plunger, the shift lever
pushes the pinion gear and causes it to mesh with the flywheel ring gear.
When the engine starts, an over-running clutch disengages the pinion gear
to prevent engine torque from ruining the starting motor.
This type of starter was used on most 1975 and older Toyota vehicles. It is
currently used on certain Tercel models. Typical output ratings are 0.8, 0.9,
and 1.0KW. In most cases, replacement starters for these older motors are
gear-reduction motors.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

GEAR-REDUCTION STARTER MOTOR

The gear-reduction starter motor contains the components shown. This type
of starter has a compact, high-speed motor and a set of reduction gears.
While the motor is smaller and weighs less than conventional starting motors,
it operates at higher speed. The reduction gears transfer this torque to the
pinion gear at 1/4 to 1/3 the motor speed. The pinion gear still rotates faster
than the gear on a conventional starter and with much greater torque
(cranking power).
The reduction gear is mounted on the same shaft as the pinion gear. And,
unlike in the conventional
starter, the magnetic switch plunger acts directly on the pinion gear (not
through a drive lever) to push the gear into mesh with the ring gear.
This type of starter was first used on the 1973 Corona MKII with the 4M, six
cylinder engine. It is now used on most 1975 and newer Toyotas. Ratings
range from 0.8KW on most Tercels and some older models to as high as
2.5KW on the diesel Corolla, Camry and Truck. The cold-weather package
calls for a 1.4KW or 1.6KW starter, while a 1.0KW starter is common on other
models.
The gear-reduction starter is the replacement starter for most conventional
starters.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Starting Motor Operation

CONVENTIONAL STARTER MOTOR

IGNITION SWITCH IN "ST"

• Current flows from the battery through
terminal "50" to the hold-in and pull-in coils.
Then, from the pull-in coil, current flows
through terminal "C" to the field coils and
armature coils.
• Voltage drop across the pull-in coil limits
the current to the motor, keeping its speed
low.
• The solenoid plunger pulls the drive
lever to mesh the pinion gear with the ring
gear.
• The screw spline and low motor speed
help the gears mesh smoothly.

PINION AND RING GEARS ENGAGED

• When the gears are meshed, the contact
plate on the plunger turns on the main
switch by closing the connection between
terminals "30" and "C."
• More current goes to the motor and it
rotates with greater torque (cranking
power).
• Current no longer flows in the pull-in
coil. The plunger is held in position by the
hold-in coil's magnetic force.

IGNITION SWITCH IN "ON"

• Current no longer flows to terminal "50,"
but the main switch remains closed to allow
current flow from terminal "C" through the
pull-in coil to the hold-in coil.
• The magnetic fields in the two coils
cancel each other, and the plunger is pulled
back by the return spring.
• The high current to the motor is cut off
and the pinion gear disengages from the ring
gear.
• A spring-loaded brake stops the
armature.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

GEAR-REDUCTION STARTER MOTOR

IGNITION SWITCH IN "ST"

• Current flows from the battery through
terminal "50" to the hold-in and pull-in
coils. Then, from the pull-in coil, current
flows through terminal "C" to the field coils
and armature coils.
• Voltage drop across the pull-in coil
limits the current to the motor, keeping its
speed low.
• The magnetic switch plunger pushes
the pinion gear to mesh with the ring gear.
• he screw and low motor speed help
the gears mesh smoothly.

PINION AND RING GEARS ENGAGED

• When the gears are meshed, the
contact plate on he plunger turns on the
main switch by closing the connection
between terminals "30" and "C."
• More current goes to the motor and it
rotates with greater torque.
• Current no longer flows in the pull-in
coil. The plunger is held in position by the
hold-in coil's magnetic force.

IGNITION SWITCH IN "ON"

• Current no longer flows to terminal
"50," but the main switch remains closed
to allow current flow from terminal "C"
through the pull-in coil to the hold-in coil.
• The magnetic fields in the two coils
cancel each other, and the plunger is
pulled back by the return spring.
• The high current to the motor is cut off
and the pinion gear disengages from the
ring gear.
• The armature has less inertia than the
one in a conventional starter. Friction stops
it, so a brake is not needed.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

OVER-RUNNING CLUTCH
Both types of starter motors used on Toyota starting systems have a one-
way clutch, or overrunning clutch. This clutch prevents damage to the
starter motor once the engine has been started. It does so, by disengaging
its housing (which rotates with the motor armature) from an inner
race which is combined with the pinion gear. Spring loaded wedged rollers
are used.
Without an over-running clutch, the starter motor would be quickly destroyed
if engine torque was transferred through the pinion gear to the armature.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Diagnosis and Testing

The starting system requires little maintenance. Simply, keep the battery
fully charged and all electrical connections clean and tight.
Diagnosis of starting system problems is relatively easy. The system
combines electrical and mechanical components. The cause of a starting
problem may be electrical (e.g., faulty switch) or mechanical (e.g., wrong
engine oil or a faulty flywheel ring gear).
Specific symptoms of starting system problems include:
• The engine will not crank;
• The engine cranks slowly;
• The starter keeps running;
• The starter spins, but the engine will not crank; and,
• The starter does not engage or disengage properly.

For each of these problems, refer to the chart below for the possible causes
and needed actions. Diagnosis starts with a thorough visual inspection.
Testing includes: a starter motor current draw test, starter circuit voltage
drop tests, operational and continuity checks of control components, and
starter motor bench tests.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

VISUAL INSPECTION

A visual inspection of the starting system can uncover a number of simple,

easy-to-correct problems.
• SAFETY FIRST: The same safety considerations used in checking the
battery apply here. Remove rings, wristwatch, other jewelry that might
contact battery terminals. Wear safety glasses and protective clothing. Be
careful not to spill electrolyte and know what to do if electrolyte gets in your
eyes, on your skin or clothing, or on the car's finish. Write down programmed
settings on electronic components. Avoid causing sparks.
• STARTING PERFORMANCE: Check the starting performance. Problem
symptoms, possible causes, and needed actions are shown in the chart on
the previous page.
• BATTERY CHECKS: Inspect the battery for corrosion, loose connections.
Check the electrolyte level, condition of the plates and separators, and state
of charge (specific gravity or open-circuit voltage). Load test the battery. It
must be capable of providing at least 9.6 volts during cranking.
STARTER CABLES: Check the cable condition and connections. Insulation
should not be worn or damaged. Connections should be clean and tight.
STARTER CONTROL CIRCUIT: Check the operation of the ignition switch.
Current should be supplied to the magnetic switch when the ignition is "on"
and the clutch switch or neutral start switch is closed. Faulty parts that
prevent cranking can be located using a remote-control starter switch and a
jumper wire. Use the "split half" diagnosis method. Ohmmeter checks can
also identify component problems.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

CURRENT DRAW TEST

A starter current draw test provides a

quick check of the entire starting
system. With the Sun VAT-40 tester, it
also checks battery's cranking voltage.
If another type of tester is used, follow
the manufacturer's recommended
procedure.
The starting current draw and
cranking voltage should meet the specifications listed for the Toyota model
being tested. Typical current draw specs are 130-150 amps for 4-cylinder
models and 175 amps for 6-cylinder models. Cranking voltage specs range
from 9.6 to 11 volts. Always refer to the correct repair manual. Only perform
the test with the engine at operating temperature.
The following steps outline a typical procedure for performing a current draw
test on a starting system:
1. This test should be made only with a serviceable battery. The specific
gravity readings at 800˚F should average at least 1. 190 (50%
charged). Charge the battery, if necessary.
2. Prepare the tester:
• Rotate the Load Increase control to OFF.
• Check each meter's mechanical zero. Adjust, if necessary.
• Connect the tester Load Leads to the battery terminals; RED to
positive, BLACK to negative.
NOTE: Battery open-circuit voltage should be at least 12.2 volts (50%
charged). If not, the battery requires charging.
• Set Volt Selector to INT 18V. Tester voltmeter should indicate
battery open-circuit voltage.
• Set Test Selector to #2 CHARGING.
• Adjust ammeter to read ZERO using the electrical Zero Adjust
control.
3. Connect the clamp-on Amps Pickup around the battery ground cable or
cables.
4. Make sure all lights and accessories are off and vehicle doors are
closed.
5. Set the Test Selector switch to #1 STARTING.
6. Disable the ignition so the engine does not start during testing.
7. Crank the engine, while observing the tester ammeter and voltmeter.
• Cranking speed should be normal (200-250 rpm).
• Current draw should not exceed the maximum specified.
• Cranking voltage should be at or above the minimum specified.
8. Restore the engine to starting condition and remove tester leads.
TEST RESULTS: High current draw and low cranking speed usually indicate a
faulty starter. High current draw may also be caused by engine problems. A
low cranking speed with low current draw, but high cranking voltage, usually
indicates excessive resistance in the starter circuit. Remember that the
battery must be fully charged and its connections tight to insure accurate
results.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

VOLTAGE-DROP TESTS
Voltage-drop testing can detect excessive resistance in the starting system.
High resistance in the starter motor circuit (power side or ground side) will
reduce current to the starting motor. This can cause slow cranking speed and
hard starting. High resistance in the starter control circuit will reduce current
to the magnetic switch. This can cause improper operation or no operation at
all.
A Sun VAT-40 tester or separate voltmeter can be used. The following steps
outline a typical procedure for performing voltage-drop tests on the starting
system:

Motor Circuit (insulated Side)

1. If using the Sun VAT-40, set the Volt Selector to EXT 3V. For other
voltmeters, use a low scale.
2. Connect the voltmeter leads ... RED to the battery positive (+) terminal,
BLACK to terminal "C" on the starter motor magnetic switch.

3. Disable the ignition so the engine cannot start during testing.

NOTE: On models with the Integrated Ignition Assembly, disconnect the "IIA"
plug. On others, disconnect the power plug to the remote igniter assembly
(black-orange wire).

4. Crank the engine and observe the voltmeter. Less than 0.5 volt indicates
acceptable resistance. More than 0.5 volt indicates excessive resistance. This
could be caused by a damaged cable, poor connections, or a defective
magnetic switch.

5. If excessive resistance is indicated, locate the cause. Acceptable voltage

drops are 0.3 volt across the magnetic switch, 0.2 volts for the cable, and
zero volts for the cable connection. Repair or replace components, as needed.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Motor Circuit (Ground Side)

1. Connect the voltmeter leads ... RED to the starter motor housing, BLACK
to the battery ground (-) terminal.
2. Crank the engine and observe the voltmeter. Less than 0.2 volt indicates
acceptable resistance. More than 0.2 volt indicates excessive resistance. This
could be caused by a loose motor mount, a bad battery ground, or a loose
connection. Repair or replace components as necessary. Make sure engine-
to-body ground straps are secure.

Control Circuit
1. Connect the voltmeter leads ... RED to the battery positive (+) terminal,
BLACK to terminal "50" of the starting motor.
2. On vehicles with automatic transmission, place the lever in Park or
Neutral. On vehicles with manual transmission, depress the clutch.

(NOTE: A jumper wire could be used to bypass either of these switches).

1. Crank the engine and observe the voltmeter. Less than .5 volt is
acceptable. If the current draw was high or cranking speed slow, the starter
motor is defective. More than .5 volt indicates excessive resistance. Isolate
the trouble and correct the cause.
2. Check the neutral start switch or clutch switch for excessive voltage drop.
Also check the ignition switch. Adjust or replace a defective switch, as
necessary.
3. An alternate method to checking the voltage drop across each component
is to leave the voltmeter connected to the battery (+) terminal and move the
voltmeter negative lead back through the circuit toward the battery. The
point of high resistance is found between the point where voltage drop fell
within specs and the point last checked.

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

COMPONENT TESTS
For the various tests on starting system components, refer to the appropriate
Toyota repair manual for testing procedures and specifications.
Ignition Switch and Key
The ignition switch should be checked both mechanically as well as
electrically. Make sure the switch turns smoothly, without binding. And, check
the ignition key for wear or metal chips that might cause the switch to stick
in the "start" position. Some duplicate keys have caused this problem. If an
electrical problem is suspected, disconnect the battery and check the switch
for proper operation and continuity using an ohmmeter.
Starter Relay
• Continuity Check: Using an ohmmeter, check for continuity between
terminals 1 and 3, and, for no continuity, between terminals 2 and 4. Replace
the relay if continuity is not as specified.
• Operational Check: Apply battery voltage across terminals 1 and 3 and
check for continuity between terminals 2 and 4. Replace the relay if operation
is not as specified.

Neutral Start Switch

If the engine will start with the shift selector in any range other than "N" or
"P," adjust the switch. First, loosen the switch bolt and set the selector to
"N." Then, disconnect the switch connector and connect an ohmmeter
between terminals 2 and 3. Adjust the switch until there is continuity. (Refer
to appropriate Service Manual for specific vehicle procedures.)

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 CH 6 : Starting Motors

Clutch Start Switch

Follow the procedure given in Toyota repair manuals for checking pedal
height and freeplay. Then, check the switch for proper operation and
continuity. Using an ohmmeter on the switch connector, there should be
continuity when the switch is ON (clutch depressed) and no continuity when
the switch is OFF (clutch not depressed). If continuity is not as specified,
replace the switch.
Safety Cancel Switch
• Continuity Checks: Using an ohmmeter, there should be no continuity
between terminals 2 and 1, 3 and 1, or 2 and 3. If there is continuity, replace
the switch.
• Operational Checks: Connect a battery between terminals 3 and 1 as
shown. No continuity should be seen between terminals 1 and 2. But, when
the switch is pushed "on," there should be continuity. If operation is not as
specified, replace the safety cancel switch.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 79

 CH 6 : Starting Motors

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 80

 CHAPTER 7
CHARGING SYSTEM

Orascom training academy

 CH 7 : Charging system
The Charging System

The charging system has three major components. The Battery,

Alternator, and the Regulator. This alternator works together with the
battery to supply power when the vehicle is running.
The output of an alternator is direct current, however AC voltage is
actually created and then converted to DC as voltage leaves the alternator
on its way to the battery and the electrical loads.

The Charging System Circuit

Four wires connect the alternator to the rest of the charging system. 'B' is
the alternator output wire that supplies current to the battery. 'IG' is the
ignition input that turns on the alternator/regulator assembly. 'S' is used
by the regulator to monitor charging voltage at the battery. 'L' is the wire
the regulator uses to ground the charge warning lamp.

Alternator Terminal ID's

'S' terminal
Sense battery voltage
'IG' terminal
Ignition switch signal turns regulator
ON
'L' terminal
Grounds warning lamp
'B' terminal
Alternator output terminal
'F' terminal
Regulator Full-Field bypass

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 CH 7 : Charging system
The Alternator Assembly

Alternator Overview
The alternator contains:
A rotating field winding called the rotor.
A stationary induction winding called the
stator.
A diode assembly called the rectifier bridge.
A control device called the voltage regulator.
Two internal fans to promote air circulation.

Alternator Design
Most regulators are on the inside the
alternator. Older models have externally
mounted regulators.
Unlike other manufacturers, this model can
be easily serviced from the rear on the unit.
The rear cover can be removed to expose
internal parts.
However, today's practice is to correctly
diagnose the problem and replace the
alternator as a unit, should one of it's
internal components fail.

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 CH 7 : Charging system
Drive Pulley Alternator drive pulleys
either bolt on or are pressed on the rotor
shaft.

Both 'V' and Multi-grove types are used.

Note this alternator does not have an

external fan as part of the pulley assembly.
While many manufacturers do use a
external fan for cooling. This alternator has
two internal fans to draw air in for cooling.

Inside the Alternator

Removal of the rear cover reveals:
1. The Regulator controls the alternator output.
2. The Brushes conduct current to the rotor field winding.
3. The Rectifier Bridge converts AC voltage to DC voltage.
4. The Slip Rings (part of the rotor assembly) connected to each end
of the field winding.

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 CH 7 : Charging system
Brushes
Two slip rings are located on one end of the rotor assembly. Each end of
the rotor field winding is Attached to slip ring. Thereby, allowing current to
flow through the field winding.
Two stationary carbon brushes ride on two rotating slip rings. Brushes are
either soldered or bolted

Electronic IC Regulator
The regulator is the brain of the charging
system.
It monitors both battery and stator voltages
and depending on the measured voltages,
the regulator will adjust the amount of rotor
field current to control alternator output.
Regulators can be mounted both internal or
external. Current technology uses an
internal regulator.

Diode Rectifier
The Diode Rectifier Bridge is responsible for
the conversion or rectification of AC voltage
to DC voltage.
Six or eight diodes are used to rectify the
AC stator voltage to DC voltage.
Half of these diodes are use on the positive
side and the other half are on the negative
side.
Further details about the rectifier bridge will
be explained later.

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 CH 7 : Charging system

Inside the Alternator

Separating the case reveals:
1. The rotor winding assembly
rotates inside the stator winding.
2. The rotor generates a magnetic
field.
3. The stator winding develops
voltage and current begins to flow
from the induced magnetic field
of the rotor.

Rotor Assembly

A basic rotor consists of a iron core, coil winding, two slip rings, and two
claw-shaped finger pole pieces.
Some models include support bearings and one or two internal cooling
fans.
The rotor is driven or rotated inside the alternator by an engine
(alternator) drive belt.

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 CH 7 : Charging system

Rotor Assembly
The rotor contains the field winding
wound over an iron core which is part of
the shaft.

Surrounding the field coil are two claw-

type finger poles.

Each end of the rotor field winding is

attached to a slip ring. Stationary
brushes connect the alternator to the
rotor.

The rotor assembly is supported by

bearings. One on the shaft the other in the drive frame.

Alternating Magnetic Field

The rotor field winding creates the magnetic field that induces voltage into
the stator.

The magnetic field saturates the iron finger poles. One finger pole
becomes a north pole and the other a south pole.

The rotor spins creating an alternating magnetic field, North, South,

North, South, etc.

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 CH 7 : Charging system
Stator Winding

Rotor / Stator Relationship

As the rotor assembly rotates within
the stator winding: The alternating
magnetic field from the spinning rotor
induces an alternating voltage into the
stator winding. The strength of the
magnetic field and the speed of the
rotor affect the amount of voltage
induced into the stator.

Stator Windings

The stator is made with three sets of

windings.

Each winding is placed is a different

position compared with the others. A
laminated iron frame concentrates the
magnetic field. Stator lead ends output
current to the diode rectifier bridge.
Neutral Junction in the Wye design can
be identified by the 6 strands of wire.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 87

 CH 7 : Charging system
3 Phase Windings

The stator winding has three sets of windings. Each is formed into a
number of evenly spaced coils around the stator core.

The result is three overlapping single phase AC sine wave current

signatures, A, B, C.

Adding these waves together make up the total AC output of the stator.
This is called three phase current.

Three phase current provides a more even current output.

Stator Designs

Delta wound stators can be identified by having only three stator leads,
and each lead will have the same number of wires attached.

Wye style has four stator leads. One of the leads is called the Neutral
Junction. The Neutral Junction is common to all the other leads.

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 CH 7 : Charging system
Wye wound stators have three windings with a common neutral
junction. They can be identified because they have 4 stator lead ends.
Wye wound stators are used in alternators that require high voltage
output at low alternator speeds. Two windings are in series at any one
time during charge output.

Delta wound stators can be identified because they have only three
stator lead ends. Delta stators allow for higher current flow being
delivered at low RPM. The windings are in parallel rather than series as
like the Wye design.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 89

 CH 7 : Charging system
Diode Rectifier Bridge Assembly

Rectifier Operation
Two diodes are connected to each stator lead. One positive the other
negative.
Because a single diode will only block half the the AC voltage.
Six or eight diodes are used to rectify the AC stator voltage to DC voltage.
Diodes used in this configuration will redirect both the positive and
negative polarity signals of the AC voltage to produce DC voltage. This
process is called 'Full - Wave Rectification'.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 90

 CH 7 : Charging system
Diodes
Diodes are used as one-way electrical check
valves. Passing current in only one
direction, never in reverse.
Diodes are mounted in a heat sink to
dissipate the heat generated by the diodes.
Diodes redirect the AC voltage into DC
voltage so the battery receives the correct
polarity.

Rectifier Operation

In red you can see B+ current pass through to the rectifier as it goes to
the battery. In green you can see the return path.

Now, in red B+ current passes through to the rectifier however, this time
current has the opposite polarity. In green you can see the new return
path. Even though it enters the rectifier at a different location, current
goes to the battery in the same direction.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 91

 CH 7 : Charging system
Electronic regulator

Voltage Regulation
The regulator will attempt to maintain a pre-
determined charging system voltage level.
When charging system voltage falls below this
point, the regulator will increase the field
current, thus strengthening the magnetic field,
which results in an increase of alternator
output.
When charging system voltage raises above this
point, the regulator will decrease field current ,
thus weakening the magnetic field, and results
in a decrease of alternator output.

Regulator Types
Two regulator designs can be used. The first type is:
The Grounded Regulator type. The regulator controls the amount of
battery ground (negative) going to the field winding in the rotor.

The second type is:

The Grounded Field type. The regulator controls the amount of Battery
Positive (B+) going to the field winding in the rotor.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 92

 CHAPTER 8
TOOLS BASICS

Orascom training academy

 CH 8 : Tools introduction
Tools introduction
1- Wrenches

Spanner ( open end wrench ) ‫ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻦ ) ﺑﻠﺪﻯ ( ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻴﻤﺘﺮ‬

mm
Available sizes
6X7 14 X 15
8X9 16 x 17
10 X 11 18 x 19
12 X 13 20 X 22

Spanner ( Box wrench ) mm ‫ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻦ ) ﻣﺸﺮﺷﺮ ( ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻴﻤﺘﺮ‬

Available sizes
6X7 14 X 15
8X9 16 x 17
10 X 11 18 x 19
12 X 13 20 X 22

Spanner ( combination wrench ) ‫ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ) ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﻭﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ( ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻴﻤﺘﺮ‬- ‫ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺡ‬

mm
Available sizes
6 10 14
7 11 17
8 12 19
9 13 21

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 93

 CH 8 : Tools introduction
2- Socket wrench

‫ﻃﺎﻗﻢ ﻟﻘﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻴﻤﺘﺮ‬

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 94

 CH 8 : Tools introduction
3 – Other socket wrench tools

Ratchet handle ‫ﻳﺪ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻴﻢ‬

L shaped
‫ﺑﻴﺒﺔ‬
socket wrench

Universal joint

Extension ‫ﻭﺻﻠﺔ‬

Torque wrench ‫ﻳﺪ ﻋﺰﻡ‬

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 95

 CH 8 : Tools introduction

4 – Adjustable wrench

‫ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 96

 CH 8 : Tools introduction

4 – Screw drivers

‫ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻜﺎﺕ‬

Cross type ‫ﺻﻠﻴﻴﺔ‬

Slot type ‫ﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬

5 – Allen keys ( Hex key )

( ‫ﻣﻔﺎﺗﻴﺢ ﺍﻻﻧﻜﻴﻪ ) ﺳﺪﺍﺳﻰ‬

Hex head ‫ﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬

Torx type ‫ﻧﺠﻤﺔ‬

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 97

 CH 8 : Tools introduction
6 – Pliers

‫ﺑﻨﺲ‬

Lineman’s pliers ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺔ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬

( combnation plier) (‫)ﻇﺮﺩﻳﺔ‬

Diagonal Pliers ( wire

‫ﻗﺼﺎﻓﺔ‬
cutter )

Needle nose pliers ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺔ ﺑﺒﻮﺯ‬

Locking pliers ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺔ ﻛﻼﺑﺔ‬

Tongue-and-groove
‫ﺑﻨﺴﺔ ﺟﺎﺯ‬
pliers

Circlip pliers ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺔ ﺗﻴﻞ‬

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 98

 CHAPTER 9
ELECTRICAL SCHEMATICS

Orascom training academy

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics

Electrical schematics
A circuit diagram (also known as an electrical diagram) is a simplified
conventional graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A schematic diagram
shows the components of the circuit as simplified standard symbols; shows the
connections between the devices, including power and signal connections.
Arrangement of the components interconnections on the diagram does not
correspond to their physical locations in the finished device.

Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual wire
connections being used. The diagram does not show the physical arrangement of
components.

Electrical schematics covered in this course:

1. Caterpillar electrical schematics.

2. Grove electrical schematics.
3. Voegle electrical schematics.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 99

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
1- CATERPILLAR electrical schematics
1. Model and serial applicable for the schematics.
2. Wire labels.
3. Connectors.
4. Components.
5. Color code for circuit identification.
6. Color abbreviation code.
7. Symbols description.
8. Schematics note and conditions.
9. Grid design for component location.
10. Electrical components symbols and description.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 100

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
1- Model and serial applicable.

Model

Serial

2- Wire labels.

Wire labels: The wire number format includes the circuit identification
number, harness identification code, wire color and wire gauge. Example:
Wire "103-H38 RD-16 is Circuit "103", wire number "38" in harness "H', red
wire and is 16 gauge.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 101

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
3- Connectors.

Connectors: The format includes the harness identification letter, a

serializing code, and the connector part number. Example: The connector in
the new schematic sample is identified as "AG-C4 111-7989", where the "C"
stands for connector. This is connector number "4" in harness "AG", and the
plug assembly connector part number is "111-7989".

4- Components.

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
Color code for circuit identification found on every schematics

5- Color abbreviation codes

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
6- Symbols and description

7- Schematics notes and conditions

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
8- Grid design for component location and machine location

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
9- Electrical components symbols and description.

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 106

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
2- Grove electrical schematics

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 108

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics
3- Voegle electrical schematics

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 CH 9 : Electrical schematics

ORASCOM Academy – Electrical Basics Page 110

 CH 9 : Electrical schematics

Grid system to simplify

component location

Inputs of the controller

Connector 2X2 pin 58

Emergency switch 11S2.2

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