Tissueand
4
Chapter 6
LevelBone
of
Bones
Organization
Structure
Lecture Presentation by
Chasity O’Malley, Palm Beach State College
with Notes by
Lori Garrett, Parkland College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal System Functions
The skeletal system: consists of bones, cartilage,
ligaments and connective tissue.
Vital functions include:
• Structural Support: Framework for attachment
of soft tissues and organs
• Storage of minerals (Calcium, phosphate):
98% Ca2+
• Protection
• Blood cell production: Red bone marrow-site
of RBC, WBC, and platelet production
(hematopoiesis)
• Movement
Learning Check
Q1. Which of the following is NOT a function of the skeletal
system?
A) performing respiratory movements
B) adjusting positions of the head, neck, and trunk
C) protecting the brain
D) supporting the organs of the abdominal cavity
E) maintaining pH homeostasis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal System Organization
• The skeletal system: consists of
bones, cartilage, ligaments and
connective tissue.
• Organized into 2 main divisions:
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Skeleton
Axial skeleton – bones of skull and associated bones,
thoracic cage, vertebral column
• Supports and protects brain and spinal cord
• Provides attachment surface for muscles that:
• Adjust position of head, neck, and trunk
• Perform respiratory movements
• Stabilize parts of appendicular skeleton
supporting limbs
Appendicular skeleton – bones of limbs and
supporting girdles that connect limbs to trunk
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal system
SKELETAL SYSTEM 206
80 AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126
Cranium 8 Clavicle 2
Pectoral 4
Face 14 2 girdle
Skull and Scapula
associated 29 Auditory 6
bones ossicles Humerus 2
Hyoid 1 Radius 2
Sternum 1 Ulna 2 Upper 60
Thoracic 25 limbs
cage Ribs 24 Carpal bones 16
Metacarpal
bones 10
Phalanges
(proximal, 28
middle, distal)
Hip bone 2 Pelvic 2
Vertebrae 24 (coxal bone) girdle
Vertebral 26 Sacrum 1 Femur 2
column
Patella 2
Coccyx 1
Tibia 2
Fibula 2 Lower 60
limbs
Tarsal bones 14
Metatarsal 10
bones
Phalanges 28
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5 Section 2 1
Learning Check
Q2. Bone is a type of ________ tissue.
A) muscle
B) nerve
C) extracellular matrix
D) connective
E) epithelial
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q3. The two major divisions of the skeleton are
A) appendicular and axial.
B) axial and pelvic.
C) appendicular and pectoral.
D) pelvic and pectoral.
E) superior and inferior
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Classification of Bones
Bones are classified by shape
into five categories:
• Flat
• Long
• Irregular
• Short
• Sesamoid
• Sutural
Flat Bones
• Thin, nearly parallel surfaces
• Form roof of skull, sternum, ribs,
scapulae
• Protect underlying soft tissue
• Extensive surface area for skeletal
muscle attachment
(Image: [Link]
bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Long Bones
• Relatively long and slender
• Located in arm, forearm, thigh,
leg, palms, soles, fingers, toes
• Femur (long bone of thigh) is
largest and heaviest bone in
body
(Image: [Link]
bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Irregular Bones
• Have complex shapes with
short, flat, notched, or
ridged surfaces
• Include spinal vertebrae,
bones of pelvis, several
skull bones
(Image: [Link]
bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Short Bones
• Small and boxy
• Include bones in wrist (carpal
bones) and in ankles (tarsal
bones)
(Image: [Link]
bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sesamoid Bones
• Embedded in tendons (hands,
knees, feet)
• Function: Protect tendons from
stress and wear
(Image: [Link]
bones)
Sutural Bones
• Irregular bones formed between cranial
bones
• Number, size, and shape vary
( [Link]
Learning Check
Q4. Which of the following is NOT a long bone?
A. fibula
B. calcaneus
C. ulna
D. metacarpal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q5. Vertebrae are examples of ________ bone.
A) short
B) irregular
C) long
D) flat
E) appendicular
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q6. The type of bone known for having thin parallel surfaces is
A) short.
B) irregular.
C) long.
D) flat.
E) appendicular
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features
Bone markings: Characteristic external and internal features
related to particular functions:
• Elevations or projections for tendon and ligament attachment
• Depressions, grooves, tunnels for blood vessel or nerve
passage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone markings
Generally 3 categories:
• Articulations: 2 bone surfaces come together
• Projections: an area of the bone that projects above the
surface of the bone
• Holes: an opening or groove: for blood vessels or nerves
(Table: [Link]
Long Bone Structure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gross anatomy of a long bone
• Diaphysis (shaft)
• length of bone
• compact bone (hard)
• Epiphysis (ends)
• ends of bone
• mostly spongy bone (softer)
• Articular cartilage
• Metaphysis (connects epiphysis to
shaft)
Epiphysis
• Expanded area at each end of
the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy
bone
• Network of struts and plates
• Resembles latticework
• Spongy bone covered with thin
layer of compact bone
(from Catalyst University clip)
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
• Long and tubular portion of
the bone
• Wall composed of thick layer
of compact bone
• Covered with periosteum
Learning Check
Q7. The shaft of a long bone is called a(n)
A) epiphyses.
B) diaphysis.
C) facet.
D) periosteum.
E) endosteum
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Supporting structures
Periosteum:
• Fibrous connective tissue
wrapper around superficial
layer of compact bone
• Isolates bone from surrounding
tissues
• Plays a role in bone growth and
repair
Bone Innervation
Extensive network of arteries and: supply
Oxygen and nutrients
- Contrast to cartilage!
• Nutrient artery and nutrient vein
(commonly one of each per bone)
• Nutrient foramen (tunnel providing
access to marrow cavity)
• Metaphyseal artery and metaphyseal
vein
• Carry blood to/from metaphysis
• Connect to epiphyseal arteries/veins
Periosteum Innervation
• Smaller blood vessels supply superficial
osteons
• Lymphatic vessels collect lymph from
bone and osteons
• Sensory nerves innervate diaphysis,
medullary cavity, and epiphyses
Innervation of nerves: Pain when injury
Articular cartilage
• Covers parts of the epiphysis that
articulate with other bones (instead of
periosteum)
• composed of hyaline cartilage
• Avascular
• Relies on diffusion from synovial
fluid for nutrients and waste
elimination
• Function: protective of bones (shock
absorption, decreased friction)
Medullary (marrow) cavity
• Inside diaphysis (shaft) of long bones
• Filled with bone marrow:
• Adults yellow marrow (mostly
fat): energy reserve
• Infants red marrow: blood cell
formation
Learning Check
Q8. Which of the following statements about bone and cartilage
is TRUE?
A) Both cartilage and bone are vascular.
B) Cartilage is vascular, but bone is not.
C) Bone is vascular, but cartilage is not.
D) Neither bone nor cartilage is vascular
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Cells
Bone cell types:
1. Osteogenic cells (osteoprogenitor cells)
2. Osteocytes
3. Osteoblasts
4. Osteoclasts
(Image:
[Link]
bone-regeneration/bone-development-and-growth)
Bone contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Lamellae
Osteoclast
Osteocytes Canaliculi
in lacunae interconnect
the lacunae
Osteoblast
Uncalcified
organic
matrix
Osteogenic cell
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteogenic Cells
aka Osteoprogenitor cells:
Mesenchymal (stem) cells that produce
cells that differentiate into osteoblasts
• Important in fracture repair
• Locations
• Inner lining of periosteum
• Lining endosteum in medullary
cavity
• Lining passageways containing
blood vessels
Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts: (blast, precursor)
• Produce new bone matrix (bone
deposition, or osteogenesis or
ossification)
• Produces unmineralized matrix
(osteoid)
• Then assists in depositing calcium
salts to convert osteoid to bone
• Become osteocytes once
surrounded by bone matrix
(from Catalyst University clip)
• Make and release proteins and
other organic compounds of the
matrix
Osteocytes
Osteocytes (osteo-, bone + cyte, cell): most abundant cell type
• Mature bone cells: cannot divide
• Maintain protein and mineral content of surrounding matrix
• Secrete chemicals that dissolve matrix
• Rebuild matrix – stimulating deposition of mineral crystals
• Occupy lacunae (pockets)
• Separated by layers of matrix formed lamellae
• interconnected by canaliculi
• Play role in bone repair
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteoclasts
Osteoclasts (klastos, broken):
• Giant cells with 50 or more nuclei
• Derived from same stem cells as monocytes and macrophages
• Remove and recycle bone matrix
• Secrete acids and proteolytic enzymes to dissolve matrix and
release stored minerals
• Process called osteolysis or bone resorption (lysis, loosening)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q9. Which type of bone cell is surrounded by matrix?
A. All bone cell types are surrounded by matrix.
B. osteocyte
C. osteoblast
D. osteoclast
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q10. Which of the following is NOT a role of osteocytes?
A) secreting chemicals to dissolve bone matrix
B) maintaining mineral content of matrix
C) rebuilding matrix
D) undergoing frequent cell division
E) repairing matrix damage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q11. Which of the following is NOT associated with osteoclasts?
A) Derived from osteoprogenitor cells
B) Regulation of calcium ions
C) Secretion of acid and proteases
D) Multinucleated
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q12. The process of removing and recycling bone matrix is
called ________ and is accomplished by ________.
A) osteolysis; osteoblasts
B) osteolysis; osteoclasts
C) ossification; osteoblasts
D) ossification; osteoclasts
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q13. Which of the following cell types produces and secretes
osteoid?
A) Osteocyte
B) Osteoclast
C) Osteoblast
D) Osteoprogenitor
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Microscopic Anatomy
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Compact and Spongy Bone
Compact bone: functional units = Osteons
parallel to long axis of bone composed
of:
• Concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix
• Central canal in the middle
Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone:
Network of struts and plates called
trabeculae
• No capillaries or venules in matrix
• Lighter than compact bone
• Bone marrow between trabeculae
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Long Bone Organization
• Periosteum—outermost layer
• Compact bone—outer bone tissue layer
• Circumferential lamellae (circum-, around + ferre, to bear) at
outer and inner surfaces
• Interstitial lamellae fill spaces between osteons
• Osteons
• Connected by perforating canals (perpendicular to surface)
• Spongy bone—innermost layer osteons
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteon (Haversian System)
Osteon = basic functional unit of
mature compact bone
Each osteon contains:
• Central canal containing arteries,
veins, and nerves
• Concentric lamellae
• Lacunae containing osteocytes
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteon (Haversian System)
Central (Haversian) canal
• carries main blood supply for the
osteon
Perforating (Volkaman’s) canals
• perpendicular to the central canal
• carries blood vessels and nerves
• connects osteons
Canaliculi
• tiny canals connecting lacunae with
each other and central canal
• connect all bone cells to a nutrient
supply
Spongy Bone
Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone:
• Found in epiphysis and metaphysis
• Trabeculae: an open network:
• Porous: reduce weight, contain bone
marrow
• Red bone marrow is found between
trabeculae
• Function: reduce weight of bones,
shock absorption
• No blood vessels in matrix: Nutrients (from Catalyst University clip at:
[Link]
reach osteons through canaliculi open
to trabeculae surfaces
Learning Check
Q14. Which of the following is NOT associated with compact bone?
A. blood vessels
B. trabeculae
C. canaliculi
D. lamellae
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q15. Which of the following terms refers to layers of bone matrix?
A) Lacuna
B) Canaliculi
C) Osteon
D) Lamella
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q16. With what are trabeculae associated?
A. lamellae of compact bone
B. formation of blood cells
C. organization of canaliculi
D. matrix of spongy bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q17. How does spongy bone differ from compact bone?
A) Only compact bone has lamellae.
B) Only compact bone has lacunae.
C) Spongy bone has trabeculae rather than osteons.
D) Spongy bone is vascular; compact bone is not.
E) Compact bone is vascular; spongy bone is not.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteogenesis (ossification)
Bone formation: replacing existing tissue with bones
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ossification
2 types of ossification:
Flat bones forming
through
intramembranous
• Intramembranous ossification
Long bones forming
through
endochondral
• Endochondral ossification
Bone formation
at 16 weeks.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.5 17
Ossification: Intramembranous vs Endochondral
(5:59min clip): [Link]
Endochondral Bone Formation
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral Ossification
• Most common method of bone formation
• Involves replacement of cartilage with bone
• Cartilage model enlarges
• Blood vessels grow around edge of cartilage model
• Blood vessels penetrate cartilage into central region
• Growth continues along with remodeling
• Capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into epiphyses
• Epiphyses filled with spongy bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
SmartArt Video: Endochondral Ossification
Learning Check
Q18. What type of tissue is most commonly replaced with bone
tissue?
A. hyaline cartilage
B. fibrous connective tissue
C. marrow
D. fibrocartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Development
Epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
• flat plate of hyaline cartilage found in young, growing bone
• allows for lengthwise growth of long bones
• hormones stop bone-growth by the end of puberty and the
hyaline cartilage turns to bone
Epiphyseal Line
• Growth spurt at puberty in response
to:
• Sex hormones
• Growth hormone
• Thyroid hormone
(Image:
• Osteoblasts produce bone faster than[Link]
chondrocytes produce epiphyseal bone-regeneration/bone-development-and-growth)
cartilage: bones reach adult length
• Epiphyseal cartilage thins and
disappears (epiphyseal closure)
• Former location seen on x-rays as
epiphyseal line in adult bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q19. In what part of a mature adult bone will cartilage still be
found?
A. epiphyseal (growth) plate
B. epiphyseal line
C. articular surface
D. marrow cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education,
Inc.
Intramembranous Ossification
Flat bones form by intramembranous ossification
• Stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts within embryonic or fibrous
connective tissue
• Occurs in deeper dermal layers
• Resulting bones – membrane bones
• Examples:
• Lower jaw
• Skull bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intramembranous Ossification
Learning Check
Q20. Where does intramembranous ossification usually occur?
A) Within hyaline cartilage
B) Around nerve tissues
C) In the long bones
D) Within the dermis
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Appositional Growth
Increase in bone diameter
• Increases bone diameter of existing bones
• Osteogenic cells differentiate into osteoblasts that add bone
matrix under periosteum
• Adds successive layers of circumferential lamellae
• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes
Factors affecting bone growth:
• Stress on the bones by physical activity.
• Hormones
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q21. Appositional growth adds ________ to bones.
A) weight but no volume
B) volume but no weight
C) girth
D) length
E) no net change
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Collagen and Calcium Phosphate
Bones are composed of:
• Collagen
• 1/3 of weight of bone
• Strong and flexible
• Bends if compressed
• Calcified matrix (calcium phosphate)
• 2/3 of weight of bone
• Crystallized Figure 5.2 1
• Hard, inflexible, brittle
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone function: Calcium level regulation
• Blood Calcium level: tightly regulated
• Negative feedback mechanism: to regulate blood Calcium
level:
• Thyroid and Parathyroid glands
• Hormones (PTH and Calcitonin)
• Stimulate osteoclast and osteoblast activity
• Also synergistically with calcitriol to regulate Calcium
absorption in guts
Calcium Balance
Q: What are the
three organ system
that work to
maintain calcium
level?
Osteoclasts erode matrix and release calcium.
Osteoblasts use calcium to deposit new matrix.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3 15
Homeostasis: Blood calcium level
Homeostasis: Blood calcium level
Learning Check
Q22. Which of the following will be stimulated by a low blood
calcium level?
A. increased osteoclast activity
B. increased osteoblast activity
C. conversion of cartilage to bone
D. increase in blood flow to the bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q23. Which of the following would NOT be a point for calcium
ion homeostasis?
A) urine production
B) osteoblast deposition
C) intestinal absorption rate
D) blood pressure
E) osteoclast activity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fracture and Repair
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fracture and Repair
• A crack or break in bone is called a fracture
• Repair of fracture involves four steps:
• Fracture hematoma: Large clot closes injured vessels
• Callus formation: of spongy bone forms on inner edges
(internal callus); of cartilage and bone stabilizes outer
edges (external callus)
• Spongy bone formation: Cartilage of external callus
replaced by spongy bone.
• Compact bone formation Spongy bone replaced by
compact bone
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Repair of a fracture
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q24. Where will a callus form?
A. at the ends of a growing long bone
B. within the spongy bone, at the site of osteoclast activity
C. at the site of a bone fracture
D. wherever bone erodes at a joint surface
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
Q25. Which of the following occurs first in fracture repair?
A) Bone remodeling
B) External callus formation
C) Fracture hematoma formation
D) Swelling of bone
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Basic Types of Fractures
Two broad categories
• Closed (simple) fractures – completely internal; no break in
skin
• Open (compound) fractures – projects through skin
• Increased risk of infection or uncontrolled bleeding
Types of Fractures
Transverse Spiral Displaced Compression Greenstick
fractures fractures fractures fractures fracture
Comminuted Epiphyseal fractures Pott's Colles
fractures fracture fracture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7 15
Specific Types of Fractures
• Transverse fractures: Break shaft across long axis
• Spiral fractures: Produced by twisting stresses
• Spread along length of bone
• Displaced fractures: Produce new and abnormal bone
arrangements
• Nondisplaced fractures retain normal alignment
• Compression fractures: Occur in vertebrae subjected to extreme
stresses
• Often associated with osteoporosis
• Greenstick fractures: One side of shaft broken, one side bent
• Generally occurs in children (Long bones have yet to fully
ossify)
Specific Types of Fractures
• Comminuted fractures: Shatter affected area producing
fragments
• Epiphyseal fractures: Occur where bone matrix is calcifying
• A clean transverse fracture of this type heals well
• If not monitored, breaks between epiphyseal plate and
cartilage can stop growth at site
• Pott’s (bimalleolar) fracture: Occurs at ankle and affects both
medial malleolus and lateral malleolus
• Colles fracture: Break in distal radius
Normal Aging vs. Osteoporosis
Normal aging
• Bones become thinner and weaker
• Begins between ages of 30–40
• Osteoblast activity declines
• Osteoclast activity stays same level
• Women lose 8 percent skeletal mass each decade after
age 40
• Men lose 3 percent skeletal mass each decade after age
40
Osteoporosis
• Condition when loss of bone mass compromises function
• Contributes to vertebral fractures in elderly
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Self-check: Can you….?
• Classify bones according to their shapes and describe surface
features
• Identify the parts of a typical long bone and describe its
internal anatomy
• State the locations of compact and spongy bone and compare
their structures and functions
• Name the three cell types in bone, identify their major
functions, and summarize calcium homeostasis
• Identify the steps in endochondral ossification
• Identify the steps in bone repair