NRL New Syllabus Topics

1. Process Utilities
2. Material Science
3. Corrosion Engineering
4. Energy Engineering
5. Fluidization Engineering
6. Alternative Energy Resources
7. Nano Science, Nanotechnology, and Nanomaterials
8. Transport Phenomena
9. Advanced Separation Processes
Process Utilities

1. Introduction to Process Utilities

2. Water as a Utility
3. Steam & Steam Generators
4. Fuel & Combustion
5. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning
6. Cooling Towers
7. Compressed Air Systems
8. Industrial Gases as Utilities
9. Inerting & Blanketing
10. Vacuum Systems
11. Material Handling Utilities
12. Waste Heat Recovery (WHR)
13. Fire Protection & Safety Utilities
14. Instrumentation-related Utilities
15. Costing & Optimization of Utilities
16. Case Studies / Industry Applications
Process Utilities

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS UTILITIES

Process utilities are supporting services required to operate any chemical plant
safely, efficiently, and continuously. They do not usually appear in the final product,
but without them, no process unit can function.
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

ROLE & IMPORTANCE OF UTILITIES IN PROCESS INDUSTRIES

1. Ensures continuous plant operation

• Utilities such as steam, power, cooling water, fuel, and compressed air keep major
equipment running.
• Pumps, compressors, reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers depend on
utilities.
2. Provide heating and cooling
• Most chemical reactions and separations need specific temperatures.
• Steam provides heating; refrigeration and cooling water provide cooling.
3. Enable safe operation
• Inerting with nitrogen prevents fires/explosions.
• Vacuum systems reduce reaction temperatures and increase safety.
• Firewater systems suppress accidental fires.
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

ROLE & IMPORTANCE OF UTILITIES IN PROCESS INDUSTRIES

4. Improve product quality

• Correct utility usage ensures controlled reaction conditions → consistent product
quality.
5. Reduce energy consumption
• Utility optimization reduces total operating cost (OPEX).
6. Essential for environmental compliance
• Waste heat recovery reduces emissions.
• Treatment utilities help meet pollution norms (e.g., waste-water treatment).
7. Support auxiliary and non-process facilities
• HVAC in control rooms
• Drinking water
• Instrument air
• Boiler feed water
• Fuel systems
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

CLASSIFICATION OF UTILITIES:

A. Based on Function

1. Heating utilities
• Steam (low, medium, high pressure)
• Hot water
• Thermal oil
• Fuel-fired furnaces
2. Cooling utilities
• Cooling water (CW)
• Chilled water (CHW)
• Refrigeration (ammonia, freon, propylene)
• Brines
• Air cooling
3. Power utilities
• Electricity
• Mechanical power (from turbines)
• Diesel generators
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

CLASSIFICATION OF UTILITIES:

A. Based on Function

4. Mechanical utilities
• Compressed air
• Vacuum
5. Chemical utilities
• Nitrogen (inerting/blanketing)
• Hydrogen (as utility in refineries)
• Oxygen
• Instrument air
• CO₂
6. Water and treatment utilities
• Process water
• Cooling tower water
• Boiler feed water (BFW)
• Demineralized (DM) water
• Potable water
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

CLASSIFICATION OF UTILITIES:

A. Based on Function

7. Safety and fire-fighting utilities

• Firewater network
• Foam systems
• Sprinklers
• Emergency showers
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

A. Utility Balance
A utility balance is a systematic calculation of utility consumption for an entire chemical
plant.

Steam balance
• Steam generation in boilers
• Distribution to units
• Condensate recovery
• Flash steam calculation

Cooling water balance

• Circulation rate
• Makeup water
• Blowdown
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

A. Utility Balance
A utility balance is a systematic calculation of utility consumption for an entire chemical
plant.

Power balance
Electrical load of motors, pumps, compressors, lighting
Turbine-driven equipment

Refrigeration load
TR calculations
Chilled water/propylene refrigeration demand

Air/N₂ balance
Instrument air
Plant air
Nitrogen for purging/blanketing
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

Why utility balance is important?

• Ensures supply is sufficient for all units
• Helps size boilers, compressors, cooling towers, and generators
• Detects imbalance or overconsumption
• Helps in energy optimization
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

B. Utility Cost Considerations

Utilities constitute 20–60% of total operating cost in most industries.

Major cost components:

1. Steam cost
• Fuel price
• Boiler efficiency
• Water treatment cost
• Blowdown losses
• Condensate return savings

2. Electricity cost
• Grid tariff
• Captive power plant cost
• Power factor penalties
• Motor efficiency
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

B. Utility Cost Considerations

Utilities constitute 20–60% of total operating cost in most industries.

Major cost components:

3. Cooling water cost

• Pumping cost
• Cooling tower fan power
• Makeup & chemical dosing

4. Refrigeration cost
• Compressor power
• COP (Coefficient of Performance)
• Refrigerant leakage losses
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

B. Utility Cost Considerations

Utilities constitute 20–60% of total operating cost in most industries.

Major cost components:

5. Nitrogen / Compressed air

• Compressor power
• Dryer and filtration cost

6. Water treatment cost

• DM plant chemicals
• RO membrane replacement
• Deaerator steam
Process Utilities: Introduction to Process Utilities

3. UTILITY BALANCE AND COST CONSIDERATIONS

B. Utility Cost Considerations

Utilities constitute 20–60% of total operating cost in most industries.

Major cost components:

5. Nitrogen / Compressed air

• Compressor power
• Dryer and filtration cost

6. Water treatment cost

• DM plant chemicals
• RO membrane replacement
• Deaerator steam
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

1. WATER SOURCES & REQUIREMENTS

Sources of Industrial Water

• Surface water: rivers, lakes, reservoirs
• Groundwater: wells, borewells
• Municipal water supply
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

Types of Industrial Water

1. Raw Water
• Untreated water from natural sources
• Contains suspended solids, hardness, microbes

2. Process Water
• Used directly in the process (reaction, washing, dilution)
• Purity required depends on process needs

3. Boiler Feed Water (BFW)

• Must be very pure to avoid scale and corrosion
• Low hardness, low TDS, no silica, no dissolved oxygen

4. Cooling Water (CW)

• Used in heat exchangers and cooling towers
• Moderate purity; should be free of suspended solids and microbes
• Hardness and alkalinity must be controlled to avoid scaling
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

Important Water Quality Parameters

TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)

• Measures total salts dissolved
• High TDS → scaling, corrosion

Hardness (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺)

• Causes scale formation in boilers & cooling systems

Silica
• Causes glass-like deposits in boilers and turbines
• Very critical for high-pressure boilers

Alkalinity
• Due to bicarbonates, carbonates
• Causes foaming & carryover in boilers
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

Important Water Quality Parameters

pH
• Indicates acidity or alkalinity
• Low pH → corrosion; high pH → scaling

Dissolved Gases (O₂, CO₂)

• Oxygen → corrosion
• CO₂ → carbonic acid formation
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

Important Water Quality Parameters

pH
• Indicates acidity or alkalinity
• Low pH → corrosion; high pH → scaling

Dissolved Gases (O₂, CO₂)

• Oxygen → corrosion
• CO₂ → carbonic acid formation
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

WATER TREATMENT METHODS —

Water treatment is done to remove suspended solids, dissolved solids, hardness, silica, gases
and microbes, depending on the end-use (cooling water, process water, boiler feed water).

1. Screening

Purpose:
To remove large floating particles such as leaves, plastic, sticks, algae, rags.

Process:
• Raw water passes through bar screens (large openings).
• Then through fine screens (smaller openings).
• Prevents clogging of downstream pumps and filters.

Where Used:
Entry point of all water treatment plants (RO, DM, cooling tower makeup).
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

2. Filtration

Purpose:
To remove fine suspended solids that cannot be removed by screening.

Types of Filters:
1. Rapid Sand Filter
• Water passes through layers of sand and gravel.
• Removes suspended particles by straining and adsorption.
• Requires backwashing to clean the filter.
2. Pressure Filter
• Enclosed vessel, higher pressure → faster filtration.
• Used for industrial plants where space is limited.

Applications:
• Cooling water systems
• RO pre-treatment
• DM plant upstream
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

3. Coagulation, Flocculation & Sedimentation

Why needed?
Colloidal particles are too small and negatively charged → they do not settle by gravity.

A. Coagulation

• Addition of chemicals (coagulants) to destabilize colloids.

• Common coagulants:
• Alum (Al₂(SO₄)₃)
• Ferric chloride
• Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)

Mechanism:
Coagulants neutralize charges on colloids → allow particles to collide and stick.
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

B. Flocculation
• Slow stirring encourages particles to form larger flocs.
• Often assisted by polyelectrolytes (flocculants).

C. Sedimentation
• Large flocs settle in a clarifier or settling tank by gravity.
• Sludge removed from bottom; clear water flows to next stage.

Applications:
• Surface water treatment
• Cooling tower makeup water
• RO and DM pretreatment
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

4. Lime–Soda Softening

Purpose:
To reduce hardness (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) from raw water.

Reactions:

A. Temporary Hardness (Bicarbonates)

Removed by Lime (Ca(OH)₂):

Ca(HCO₃)₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → 2 CaCO₃ ↓ + 2 H₂O

Mg(HCO₃)₂ + 2 Ca(OH)₂ → Mg(OH)₂ ↓ + 2 CaCO₃ ↓ + 2 H₂O
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

4. Lime–Soda Softening

B. Permanent Hardness (Chlorides, Sulfates)

Removed by Soda Ash (Na₂CO₃):

CaSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → CaCO₃ ↓ + Na₂SO₄
MgCl₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → Mg(OH)₂ ↓ + CaCl₂
CaCl₂ + Na₂CO₃ → CaCO₃ ↓ + 2 NaCl

Advantages:
• Can handle large water volumes
• Removes Fe and Mn also

Limitations:
• Produces large sludge
• Does not reduce TDS significantly
• Not suitable for high-pressure boiler feed water
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

5. Ion Exchange Process

Used for softening (removing hardness) and demineralization (removing all ions).

A. Softening (Cation Exchange – Na⁺ form)

Resin: R–Na
Reactions:
Ca²⁺ + 2R–Na → R₂–Ca + 2Na⁺
Mg²⁺ + 2R–Na → R₂–Mg + 2Na⁺

Output:
Zero-hardness water with increased sodium.

Regeneration:
R₂–Ca + 2NaCl → 2R–Na + CaCl₂
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

5. Ion Exchange Process

Used for softening (removing hardness) and demineralization (removing all ions).

B. Demineralization (DM Plant)

1. Cation Exchanger (H⁺ form)
Replaces all cations with H⁺:
Ca²⁺ → H⁺ ; Na⁺ → H⁺

2. Degasser
Removes CO₂ produced after cation exchange.

3. Anion Exchanger (OH⁻ form)

Replaces all anions with OH⁻:
Cl⁻ → OH⁻ ; SO₄²⁻ → 2OH⁻
H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O → pure water

4. Mixed Bed Exchanger (final polishing)

Produces very high-purity water (TDS < 1 ppm).
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

5. Ion Exchange Process

Used for softening (removing hardness) and demineralization (removing all ions).

Applications:
• Boiler feed water
• Electronics industries
• Fertilizer and refinery units
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

6. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Principle:
Water is forced through a semi-permeable membrane at high pressure → removes 95–99%
TDS.

Removes:
• Dissolved salts
• Microorganisms
• Organics
• Silica (partially)

Advantages:
• Low chemical requirement
• Very effective in reducing TDS

Disadvantages:
• Sensitive to fouling
• High pressure → high power cost
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

Usage:
• Before DM plant
• Drinking water
• Cooling tower makeup (where high TDS scaling risk exists)
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

7. Deaeration (Removal of Dissolved Gases)

Boiler feed water must be free of dissolved oxygen and CO₂ to prevent corrosion.

A. Mechanical Deaeration (Deaerator)

Working principle:
Water is heated close to saturation temperature using steam.
O₂ and CO₂ are stripped out due to reduced solubility at high temperature.
Tray + spray system increases surface area.

Performance:
Reduces O₂ to < 7 ppb.
Process Utilities: WATER AS A UTILITY

7. Deaeration (Removal of Dissolved Gases)

Boiler feed water must be free of dissolved oxygen and CO₂ to prevent corrosion.

B. Chemical Deaeration (Oxygen Scavengers)

Common scavengers:
• Sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃)
2Na₂SO₃ + O₂ → 2Na₂SO₄
• Hydrazine (N₂H₄)
N₂H₄ + O₂ → N₂ + 2H₂O (no solids)
• Carbohydrazide (modern alternative)

Used when:
• Mechanical deaerator alone is not enough
• Low-pressure boilers
• Backup for O₂ removal
MCQs

1. Utilities in a chemical plant are primarily used for:

A. Producing the final product
B. Supporting process operations
C. Enhancing colour of product
D. Reducing equipment size
MCQs

2. Which of the following is a heating utility?

A. Cooling water
B. Steam
C. Chilled brine
D. Nitrogen
MCQs

3. Instrument air is classified under which utility type?

A. Chemical utility
B. Mechanical utility
C. Safety utility
D. Direct process utility
MCQs

4. Which utility is mainly used for inerting and blanketing?

A. Oxygen
B. Steam
C. Nitrogen
D. Compressed air
MCQs

5. Utility balance is used primarily for:

A. Product purification
B. Equipment sizing and load estimation
C. Raw material specification
D. Catalyst selection
MCQs

6. The largest contributor to utility cost in industries is usually:

A. Compressed air
B. Chilled water
C. Steam
D. Firewater
MCQs

7. Boiler feed water (BFW) must have:

A. High hardness
B. Low TDS and low silica
C. High alkalinity
D. High dissolved oxygen
MCQs

8. Cooling tower water should mainly be free from:

A. Sugars
B. Suspended solids and microbes
C. Silica only
D. Chlorine
MCQs

9. High hardness in water is caused by presence of:

A. Na⁺ and K⁺
B. Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺
C. Fe²⁺ only
D. Dissolved oxygen
MCQs

10. Silica in boiler water is undesirable because it causes:

A. Foaming
B. Corrosion
C. Glass-like deposits on tubes/turbines
D. Increase in pH
MCQs

11. Which water treatment step removes only large suspended particles?
A. RO
B. Screening
C. Ion exchange
D. Chemical deaeration
MCQs

12. Coagulation helps in removing:

A. Dissolved ions
B. Colloidal and fine suspended solids
C. Dissolved gases
D. Silica only
MCQs

13. Which chemical is widely used as a coagulant?

A. Sodium sulfate
B. Alum
C. Hydrazine
D. Sodium sulfite
MCQs

14. Lime–soda softening primarily removes:

A. Dissolved gases
B. Suspended solids
C. Hardness
D. Silica only
MCQs

15. In ion-exchange softening, hardness ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) are replaced by:
A. H⁺ ions
B. Na⁺ ions
C. OH⁻ ions
D. Cl⁻ ions
MCQs

16. The unit that removes both cations and anions to produce very low TDS water is:
A. Cooling tower
B. Mixed bed exchanger
C. Screening unit
D. Mechanical deaerator
MCQs

17. RO membranes mainly remove:

A. Only suspended solids
B. Only dissolved gases
C. Only cations
D. Most dissolved salts (TDS)
MCQs

18. Mechanical deaerators remove oxygen by:

A. Using sodium sulfite
B. Using hydrazine
C. Steam stripping at high temperature
D. Adsorption on resin
MCQs

19. Which chemical is commonly used as an oxygen scavenger?

A. PAC
B. Na₂SO₃
C. Ca(OH)₂
D. Na₂CO₃
MCQs

20. Hydrazine is used in boilers mainly because:

A. It softens water
B. It reacts with oxygen without forming solids
C. It removes silica
D. It increases TDS
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

1 BASICS OF STEAM

Steam is the most widely used heating utility in chemical and process industries because:
• Carries high heat content
• Easy to distribute
• Temperature is controlled by pressure
• Clean, non-toxic, and condensate is reusable

A. Properties of Steam
1. Wet Steam
• Contains both water droplets + vapor
• Moisture content > 0
• Dryness fraction (x) defines quality
• x = 0 → fully liquid
• x = 1 → dry saturated steam
• Enthalpy of wet steam:
h = hf + x·hfg
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

2. Dry Saturated Steam

• 100% vapor, no liquid droplets
• Exists at saturation temperature (Tsat) at a given pressure
• Contains latent heat (hfg)

3. Superheated Steam
• Temperature > Tsat
• No moisture
• Behaves almost like ideal gas
• Used for turbines (power generation)
• Enthalpy:
h = hg + CpΔT
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

B. Use of Steam Tables

Steam tables provide:
• Saturation temperature vs pressure
• Enthalpy (hf, hfg, hg)
• Entropy (sf, sfg, sg)
• Specific volume

Used to calculate:
• Heat duties
• Boiler efficiency
• Steam requirements
• Turbine work
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

C. Enthalpy, Entropy, Heat Content

1. Enthalpy of saturated liquid (hf)
• Sensible heat (heating water to boiling point)

2. Latent heat (hfg)

• Heat required for phase change
• Decreases with increase in pressure

3. Enthalpy of dry steam (hg)

hg = hf + hfg

4. Wet steam enthalpy

h = hf + x·hfg

5. Superheated steam enthalpy

h = hg + Cp (T – Tsat)
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

C. Enthalpy, Entropy, Heat Content

Entropy (s)
• Used in turbines/expansion calculations:
• sf: saturated liquid
• sg: dry saturated steam
• s = sf + x·sfg (for wet steam)
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

2 BOILERS
Boilers generate steam by converting water to steam using heat from fuel.

A. Classification of Boilers

1. Based on Tube Location

• Fire-tube boiler: hot gases inside tubes, water outside
• Water-tube boiler: water inside tubes, hot gases outside

2. Based on Pressure
• Low pressure (<10 bar)
• Medium pressure
• High pressure (>60 bar)
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

2 BOILERS
Boilers generate steam by converting water to steam using heat from fuel.

A. Classification of Boilers

3. Based on Circulation
• Natural circulation
• Forced circulation

4. Based on Fuel
• Coal-fired
• Oil-fired
• Gas-fired
• Biomass
• Electric boilers
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

B. Fire-Tube vs Water-Tube Boilers

Feature Fire-Tube Water-Tube

Flow Hot gas inside tube Water inside tube

Pressure Low-moderate High pressure

Steam generation rate Low High

Size Large Compact

Response time Slow Fast

Safety Lower Higher

STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS
C. Boiler Mountings & Accessories

Mountings (safety devices):

• Safety valve
• Water level gauge
• Pressure gauge
• Blowdown valve
• Fusible plug
• Feed check valve

Accessories (efficiency improvement):

• Economizer (heats feed water using flue gas)
• Air preheater
• Superheater
• Steam separator
• Feedwater pump
• Deaerator
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS
D. Boiler Efficiency

Boiler efficiency =
Heat used in steam generation
× 100
Heat supplied by fuel

Improved using:
• Economizer
• Air preheater
• Proper insulation
• Blowdown control
• High excess air control
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS
E. Heat Balance in Boilers
Accounts for all energy flows:

Heat Input:
• Fuel combustion heat

Heat Output:
• Heat in steam
• Heat in blowdown
• Stack (flue gas) losses
• Radiation losses
• Unburnt fuel losses
• Used to find scope for energy saving.
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION

A. Steam Traps: Types & Selection

Steam traps discharge condensate while preventing live steam loss.

Types:

1. Mechanical Traps
• Float trap, bucket trap
• Work based on density difference
• Best for steady loads (heat exchangers)

2. Thermodynamic Traps
• Disc trap
• Based on pressure + velocity
• Best for high-pressure lines
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION
A. Steam Traps: Types & Selection
Steam traps discharge condensate while preventing live steam loss.
Types:

3. Thermostatic Traps
• Bimetallic / bellows
• Open/close based on temperature difference
• Used in tracing lines

Selection depends on:

• Pressure
• Load variability
• Air venting need
• Application type
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION

B. Condensate Return System

Returning condensate:
• Saves sensible heat
• Reduces makeup water
• Reduces blowdown
• Increases boiler efficiency
• Decreases fuel cost
Components: pumps, tanks, return piping, flash tank.
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION

C. Steam Piping Design Basics

Good design avoids water hammer and loss of energy.

Key points:
• Steam pipes must be insulated.
• Pipes must be sloped towards traps.
• Provide steam traps at low points.
• Maintain steam velocity around 20–30 m/s.
• Use steam separators to remove moisture.
• Provide expansion loops to absorb thermal expansion.
tank.
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION

D. Pressure Reducing Stations (PRS)

Used where process requires lower pressure steam.

Components:
• Pressure reducing valve (PRV)
• Strainer
• Separator
• Safety valve
• Steam trap
Functions:
• Maintain stable downstream pressure
• Prevent pressure fluctuations
• Protect downstream equipment
STEAM & STEAM GENERATORS

3 STEAM DISTRIBUTION

E. Flash Steam
When hot condensate drops in pressure:
• Part of water instantly vaporizes → flash steam
• Happens due to excess enthalpy after pressure drop
Used in:
• Flash tanks
• Low-pressure steam systems
• Energy recovery systems

Flash steam % =
ℎ1 − ℎ2
ℎ𝑓𝑔2

(where h₁ = condensate enthalpy at high pressure,

h₂ = condensate enthalpy at lower pressure)
MCQs

1. Wet steam is defined as:

A. Steam completely free of moisture
B. Steam above saturation temperature
C. A mixture of saturated vapor and water droplets
D. Water at saturation temperature
MCQs

2. Dryness fraction (x) of steam indicates:

A. Superheat level
B. Fraction of vapor present in wet steam
C. Degree of turbulence of steam
D. Steam velocity
MCQs

3. Dry saturated steam exists at:

A. Temperature below Tsat
B. Temperature equal to Tsat
C. Temperature above Tsat
D. Constant enthalpy
MCQs

4. Superheated steam is mainly used in:

A. Heat exchangers
B. Steam turbines
C. Deaerators
D. Reboilers
MCQs

5. The latent heat of vaporization (hfg) of steam:

A. Increases with pressure
B. Decreases with pressure
C. Is independent of pressure
D. First increases then decreases
MCQs

6. Which of the following is not given in steam tables?

A. Enthalpy values
B. Entropy values
C. Specific volume
D. Viscosity of chemical solutions
MCQs

7. Enthalpy of wet steam is given by:

A. hg + CₚΔT
B. hf + x hfg
C. hf + hfg
D. sf + x sfg
MCQs

8. In a fire-tube boiler:
A. Water flows inside the tubes
B. Flue gases flow inside the tubes
C. Boiler efficiency is maximum
D. Used for very high-pressure applications
MCQs

9. Water-tube boilers are preferred for high pressure because:

A. They are cheaper
B. Water in tubes provides better heat transfer and safety
C. They require less space
D. They have no mountings
MCQs

10. Which is a boiler mounting?

A. Economizer
B. Air preheater
C. Safety valve
D. Superheater
MCQs

11. Which is a boiler accessory?

A. Fusible plug
B. Pressure gauge
C. Blowdown valve
D. Economizer
MCQs

12. Boiler efficiency increases by using:

A. More blowdown
B. High stack temperature
C. Economizer
D. Unburnt fuel
MCQs

13. The largest heat loss in boilers is usually due to:

A. Radiation
B. Moisture
C. Flue gases
D. Unburnt carbon
MCQs

14. A steam trap is used to:

A. Remove air from boiler
B. Remove condensate without steam loss
C. Increase boiler pressure
D. Remove dissolved gases
MCQs

15. A thermodynamic steam trap operates on:

A. Density difference
B. Temperature difference
C. Velocity and pressure difference
D. Float movement
MCQs

16. Condensate return improves boiler efficiency because:

A. It has low temperature
B. It is pure and contains heat
C. It is cheaper than steam
D. It increases blowdown
MCQs

17. Steam pipes should be sloped because:

A. It reduces pipe thickness
B. Helps condensate flow to traps
C. Increases pressure
D. Reduces enthalpy loss
MCQs

18. Pressure reducing stations (PRS) mainly use:

A. Superheater
B. PRV (Pressure Reducing Valve)
C. Lubricator
D. Feed check valve
MCQs

19. Flash steam is generated when:

A. Superheated steam cools
B. Condensate is heated
C. Condensate pressure is suddenly reduced
D. Fuel is burned
MCQs

20. Flash steam percentage depends on:

A. Feedwater pH
B. Difference in condensate enthalpies at two pressures
C. Boiler pressure only
D. Condensate dissolved solids