1. Passive and active components in electronics Module IIT INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 1.1 Active Components + Definition: Components that ean inject power into a circuit and require an external power souree to operate. + Funetion: Capable of amplifying signals, controlling current flow, and generating signals, + Examples: Transistors: Used for amplification and switching. Integrated Circuits (ICs): Contain multiple transistors and other components to perform complex functions, Diodes: Allow current to flow in one direction, used for rectification, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs); Emit light when current flows through them. 1.2 Passive Components + Definition: Components that do not require an external power source and cannot amplify signals. ‘They can only store or dissipate energy. + Function: Primarily used to store, filter, or control the flow of electrical signals. + Examples: Resistors: Control the flow of electrical current by offering resistance. Capacitors: Store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field, Inductors: Store enerey temporarily in a magnetic field and resist changes in current. ‘Transformers: Transfer electrical energy between circuits through electromagnetic induction, Parameter ‘Aetive Component Passive Component Nature of Source Itdelivers energy/power tothe circuit It utilizes energy/power of the circuit Function These are the devices which producex | These are the devices which store energy energy in the form of voltage/ current, | in the form of voltage/ current. Power gain Capable of providing power gain. Tncapable of providing power gain Requirement of external source Requires external source for operation Does riot require any extemal source for operation. Nature of Energy Ttacts as energy donor. Ttacts as energy acceptor. Examples Diode, Transistors, ICs Resistors, Capacitors, InductorsGXEST104: Introduction to Electrical & Electronies Engineering % Resistors Classification Unit: Ohm (Q). [Link] Resistors: Fixed resistors are electronic components with a resistance value that does not change. They are used to limit the current flow, divide voltages, and in various other applications where astable and predictable resistance is required, Examples: 1. Carbon Composition Resistors: Made from a mixture of carbon powder and a binding ‘material. They are inexpensive but have higher noise and lower precision. 2. Metal Film Resistors: Made by depositing a thin layer of metal onto a ceramic substrate, They offer better precision and stability compared to carbon composition resistors. 3. Wire-Wound Resistors: Made by winding a metal wire (usually nichrome) around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. They can handle higher power levels and are very precise. 4. Thick and Thin Film Resistors: Made by applying a thick or thin layer of resistive material onto an insulating substrate. They are used in applications requiring high precision and stability. [Link] Resistors: Variable resistors are components whose resistance can be adjusted. They are commonly used to control current or voltage in a circuit, By changing the resistance, they can regulate the flow of electrical energy. Examples: 1. Potentiometers: These have three terminals and are used to adjust voltage. They function as adjustable voltage dividers. 2. Rheostats: These have two terminals and are used to control current. They function by varying the resistance in a circuit. 3. Preset: A preset is a type of variable resistor that is designed to be set or adjusted during the manufacturing or calibration process and then left in that position, Unlike regular variable Tesistors, presets are not meant to be adjusted frequently by the end user, ‘> Capacitor Classification Unit: Farad (F). Capacitors are electronic components that store and release electrical energy. They are classified based ‘on their construction, dielectric material, and application. Here are the main classifications and some examples 1, Fixed Capacitors: These capacitors have a fixed capacitance value that cannot be changed, + Ceramic Capacitors: Made from ceramic materials. They are non-polarized and used in high- frequency applications © Example: Muttilayer Ceramic Capacitor (MLCC) + Film Capacitors: Use a thin plastic film as the dielectric. They are known for their stability and low inductance o Example: Polyester Film Capacitor+ Electrolytic Capacitors: Use an electrolyte as the dielectric. They are polarized and have hig capacitance values. Example: Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor + Tantalum Capacitors: A type of electrolytic capacitor with tantalum as the anode. They are known for their reliability and stability. © Example: Solid Tantalum Capacitor ‘+ Mica Capacitors: Use mica as the diclect applications, ‘They are stable and used in high-frequency Example: Silver Mica Capacitor 2, Variable Capacitors: These capacitors have an adjustable capacitance value, © Tuning Capacitors: Used in radio frequeney circuits to tune the frequency. © Example: Air Variable Capacitor + Trimmer Capacitors: Small capacitors used for fine adjustments in circuits, © Example: Ceramic Trimmer Capacitor 3. Supercapacitors: Also known as ultracapacitors, they have very high capacitance values and are used for energy storage. + Double-Layer Capacitors: Store energy in an electrostatic double layer. © Example; Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC) ‘+ Pseudo-Capacitors: Store energy through electrochemical reactions. ‘© Example: Hybrid Supereapacitor ations: + Ceramic Capacitors: Used in decoupling and filtering applications. + Film Capacitors: Used in power supplies and audio circuits. + Electrolytic Capacitors: Used in power supply filtering and energy storage. + Tantalum Capacitors: Used in space-constrained applications like mobile phones. + Supereapacitors: Used in backup power supplies and energy harvesting systems, * Inductors Classifications Unit: Henry (HD. Inductors are passive electronic components that store energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through them. They are classified based on their core material, construction, and application. Here are the main classifications: 1. Air Core Inductors: * Description: These inductors use air as the core material,+ Features: They have low inductance and are used in high-frequency applications. + Applications: RF tuning coils, filter circuits, and high-frequency applications like TV and radio receivers. 2. Iron Core Inductors: + Description: These inductors use iron as the core material. + Features; They have higher inductance and are used in low-frequency applications. + Applications: Power supplies, audio equipment, and transformers, 3. Ferrite Core Inductors: + Description: These inductors use ferrite, a eeramie compound consisting of iron oxide mixed with other metals. + Features: They offer high inductance and are used in both high-frequency and low-frequency applications, ‘+ Applications: Power inductors, EMI filters, and transformers. 4, Laminated Core Inductors: + Description: These inductors have a core made of laminated steel sheets. + Features: They reduce eddy current losses and are used in power applications. ‘+ Applications: Power transformers, inductors in power supplies, and line filters. 5, Toroidal Inductors: + Description: These inductors have a doughnut-shaped core, usually made of ferrite or powdered iron. © Features: They offer high inductance with minimal electromagnetic interference (EMI), ion, + Applications: Power supplies, audio equipment, and EMI suppres 6. Powdered Iron Core Inductors: + Description: These inductors use powdered iron as the core material. + Features: They provide stable inductance over a wide range of frequencies. + Applications: RF circuits, power supplies, and signal processing. 7. Multi-Layer Inductors: + Description: These inductors are made by stacking multiple layers of conductive material separated by inyulating layers. + Features: They are compact and suitable for high-frequency applications, © Applications: Mobile devices, RF circuits, and high-density electronic circuits.Colour Coding of Resistors Homework: Prepare notes on Semiconductors, dopping, P type and N type Semiconductors 2. Working of PN junction diode PR junation diode ) ——_>— 0 pm cones = Fig: PN junetion diode symbol 2.1 Structure: ‘= P-type Region: Contains holes (positive charge carriers). © N-type Region: Contains electrons (negative charge carriers), + Depletion Region: Arca around the junction where no free charge carriers exist Negative ion Positive ion2.2 Formation of Depletion Region * When the P-type and N-type materials are joined, electrons from the N-region diffuse into the P-region and recombine with holes. * This creates a region devoid of fee charge carriers, known as the depletion region, which acts as a barrier. 2.3 Biasing of the Diode Tora ning ofa Pon Newgon —b_Predin is forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half cycle. Full wave Rectifier with capacitor filter, ‘The working of the full wave rectifier with filter is almost similar to that of the half wave rectifier with filter, The only difference is that in the half wave rectifier only one half cycle (cither positive or negative) of the input AC current will charge the capacitor but the remaining half eycle will not charge the capacitor. But in full wave rectifier, both positive and negative half eycles of the input AC current will charge the capacitor. ‘The main duty of the capacitor filter is to short the ripples to the ground and blocks the pure DC (DC components), s0 that it flows through the alternate path and reaches output load resistor Ri. When input AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode Dy is forward biased and allows electric current whereas the diode Dz is reverse biased and blocks electric current. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle the diode D: is forward biased (allows electric current) and the diode Ds is reverse biased (blocks electric current),b AC in BPy 1 oc oun Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter Voltage Dc output Time ‘The pulsating Direct Current (DC) produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC and DC components. We know that the capacitor allows the AC components and blacks the DC components of, the current, When the DC current that contains both DC components andl AC components reaches the filter, the DC components experience a high resistance from the capacitor whereas the AC components experience a low resistance from the capacitor. Electric current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path, So, the AC components will flow through the capacitor whereas the DC components are blocked by the capacitor. Therefore, they find an alternate path and reach the output load resistor Ru. The flow of AC components through the capacitor is nothing but the charging of a capacitor. Thus, the filter converts the pulsating DC into pure DC. ‘The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier can be obtained using the following formula: ‘The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%. Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier ‘© The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.+ The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required. The value of ripple factor in fall wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier itis about 1.21 + The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher than that obtained using half wave rectifiers. The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit elements than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier. 7.3 Bridge Rectifier The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge reetifier circuit is made of four diodes Dy, Da Ds, [Link] a load resistor Ri. The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The m: advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tpped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced ‘The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained across the load resistor Ry connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in sueh a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D, and D; are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes Dy and D, conduct electric current during a negative half eycle. Working When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D; and D; becoming forward biased while D; and Dj becoming reverse biased. The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:DC Output During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes negative. This causes diodes D> and Dy to become forward biased and diode D; and Ds to be reverse biased. The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below: — A DC Output From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor Ri. is the same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, itis completely positive. Ifthe diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage. Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half eyeles of the input AC signal. ‘The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.AC Input DC output (pulsating form) Advantages + The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is the same. * The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier wave rectifier. smoother than the output DC signal of a half- + Inahalf-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the other half is blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier. However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal, Hence, the output DC signal is almost equal to the input AC signal, Disadvantages + The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave rectifier and centre- tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes while half-wave rectifiers and centre- tapped full wave rectifiers use only two diodes. + When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle, But in a bridge rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier. Homework: Prepare notes on Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter 8. Ripple Factor Aripple is defined as the fluctuating AC component in the rectified DC output. ‘The rectified DC output could be either DC current or DC voltage. When the fluctuating AC component is present in DC current itis known as the current ripple while the fluctuating AC component in DC voltage is known as the voltage tipple. ‘The ripple factor is defined as The ratio of the RMS value of an alternating current component in the rectified output to the average value of rectified output. ‘The ripple factor is denoted as F (gantma). It is a dimensionless quantity.8.1 Half-Wave Rectifier © Without Filter: © The half-wave rectifier allows only one half of the AC cycle to pass through, resulting in a pulsating DC output. © Theripple factor for a half-wave rectifier without a filter is approximately 1.21", © With Filter: © Adding a capacitor filter smooths the output by char discharging when the voltage drops. ing during the peak voltage and © The ripple factor decreases significantly with a filter. The exact value depends on the capacitance and load resistance but is generally much lower than 1.21 8.2 Full-Wave Rectifier © Without Filter: ‘© Afull-wave rectifier converts both halves of the AC eyele into DC, resulting ina average output voltage and lower ripple compared to a half-wave rectifier. © Theripple factor for a full-wave rectifier without a filter is approximately 0.48 + With Filter: © A capacitor filter further smooths the output, reducing the ripple. ‘© The ripple factor with a filter is significantly lower and depends on the filter’s capacitance and the load resistance 8.3 Bridge Rectifier + Without Filte © A bridge rectifier uses four diodes to convert both halves of the AC eycle into DC, similar to a full-wave rectifier but without the need fora center-tapped transformer. © The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier without a filter is also approximately 0.48 © With Filter © Adding a Capacitor filter reduces the ripple in the output © Ripple factor with a filter is much lower and depends on the capacitance and load resistor9. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Abipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n junctions ‘which can amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter. Bipolar junction transistor (BIT) is a bidirectional device that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers. While Unipolar transistor i.e. field effect transistor uses only one type of change carrier. BJT is a [Link] device. The current flows from emitter to collector or from collector to emitter depending on the type of connection, This main current is controlled by a very small current at the base terminal. PNP NPN Fig.: Types of BIT 9.1 Construction of BIT. Bipolar junction transistor is formed by the combination of two back-to-back doped semiconductor materials. In other words, BIT is formed by the “Sandwich” of back-to-back extrinsic semiconductor materials. These extrinsic semiconductors are PN junction diodes. Two PN junctions’ diodes are sandwiched together to form a three-terminal device known as BIT transistor, BIT is a three-terminal device having two junetions. After doping an intrinsic semiconductor with Trivalent or Pentavalent impurities a P-type semiconductor or N-type semiconductor respectively is made. If the number of clectrons are greater than the number of holes (positive carriers) then that is known as N-type semiconductor material. While in P-type semiconductor, the number of holes is greater than the number of electrons. When P-type and N-type material are connected then it becomes a PN-junction diode. BJT transistors are formed after connecting two PN junctions back-to-back. These transistors are known as PNP or NPN bipolar junction transistors depending on whether P or N-type is sandwiched,Basically, transistors have three portions and two junctions. These three portions are called Emitter, Collector, and Base. The emitter and collector sandwich the base in between them, The middle portion (base) forms two junctions with the emitter & collector. The junction of the base with emitter is known as the Emitter-Base junction while the junction of the base with the collector is known as the Collector-Base junction. > ‘Terminals of BIT ‘There are three terminals of BIT, These terminals are knowns as collector, emitter and base. These terminals are briefly discussed here. © Emitter ‘The emitter is the portion on one side of the transistor which emits electrons or holes to the other two portions. The base is always reverse bias with respect to emitter so that it can emit a large number of majority carriers. It is the most heavily doped region of the BJT. The emitter-base junction should be always forward bias in both PNP and NPN transistors. Emitter supplies electrons to the emitter-base junction in NPN while it supplies holes into the same junetion in PNP transistor. = Collector ‘The portion on the opposite side of the Emitter that collects the emitted charge carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) is known as collector. The collector is heavily doped but the doping level of the collector is in between the lightly doping level of base and heavily doped level of emitter. Collector-base junction should be always reversed biased in both PNP and NPN transistors. The reason for reverse biasing is to remove charge carriers (electrons or holes) from the collector-base junction. The collector of NPN transistor collects electrons emitted by emitter. While in PNP transistor, it collects holes emitted by emitter, = Base ‘The base is the middle portion between collector and emitter & it forms two PN junctions between them. The base is the most lightly doped portion of the BJT. Being the middle portion of the BJT allows it to control the flow of charge carriers between emitter and collector. The base-collector junction shows high resistance because this junction is reversed bias, PNP Construction In PNP bipolar transistor, the N-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two P-type semiconductors. PNP transistors can be formed by connecting cathodes of two diodes. The cathodes of the diodes are connected together at a common point known as base. While the anodes of the diodes that are on the opposite sides are known as the collector and the emitter.PNP Transistor - Construction & Worki ‘The emitter-base junction is forward bias while collector-base junction is reverse bias. So, in PNP type current flows from emitter to collector. The emitter, in this case, is at high potential to both collector and bass NPN Construction NPN type is exactly opposite to PNP type. In NPN bipolar transistor, the P-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two N-type semiconductors. When the anodes of two diodes are connected together it forms an NPN transistor. The current will flow from the collector to emitter because the collector terminal is more positive than emitter in NPN connection, c ¢ c ¢ Cater te Me hy 8 8 8 8 ase Vex Me E E E Enter e A RUS e eae Rca‘The difference between PNP and NPN symbol is the arrow mark at the emitter which shows the direction of flow of current. The current will either flow from emitter to collector or from collector to emitter. The arrow mark in PNP transistor is inward, which shows the flow of curent from emitter to collector. In case of NPN collector, the arrow mark is outward, which shows the flow of current from collector to emitter. Collector Collector Emitter Emitter 9.2 Working Principle of BJT. The emitter-base junction of BIT is forward-bised, whereas the collector-base junction is reverse biased, The forward bias of the emitter-base junction causes the emitter current to flow and this emitter current entirely flows in the colleetor circuit. Therefore, the collector current depends upon the emitter current and nearly equal to the emitter current > Working of NPN Transistor With the forward-biased emitter-base junction and reverse-biased collector-base junction, it can be seen that the forward bias causes the flow of electrons from the n-type emitter into the p-type base. Th constitutes the emitter current (Ik). As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with the holes. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number of electrons (Less than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current (Is). The remaining (more than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to the collector region to constitute the collector current (Ie). In this manner, the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. np n ee aa PLS hpSe yy bh ‘ia ] aap at Vee Vee ‘The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents, that> Working of PNP Transistor For the PNP-transistor, the forward bias of emitter-base junction causes the flow of holes in the p-type emitter region towards the n-type base and constitutes the emitter current (In). As these holes cross into the n-type base region, they tend to combine with the electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence only a small number of holes (less than $%) combine with the electrons. The remaining (more than 95%) cross the base and reach into the collector region to constitute the collector current (le). In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be noted that the current conduction inside the pnp-transistor is due to the movement of holes, However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still due to the flow of electrons. Pon p Wes Spe de t SS ispe f f 4 4 el es ye Ves Vee. ‘The em Ip +e 9.3 BT Biasing ABJT has two pn-junetions viz. emitter-base junction and collector-base junction. Application of proper DC voltage at the two junctions of the BJT is known as BIT or Transistor Biasing. lee lc When a transistor used as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junetion is reverse biased. If the transistor is operated under this bias condition, then itis said to be ‘operating in the active region. When both the junctions are forward biased then the transistor is said to be operating in the saturation region, The transistor operated in saturation region acts like a closed switch and the collector current becomes maximum, When both the junctions are reverse biased, the transistor is said to be operating in the eut off region ‘The BIT operated in cut off region acts as an open switch and a very small collector current (in A) flows from emitter to collector. This current is called reverse leakage current and is due to minority charge carriers (electrons in p-tegion and holes in n-region). Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Junction Operating Region Forward Biased Reverse Biased ‘Active Region Forward Biased. Forward Biased. Saturation Region Reverse Biased Reverse Biased Reverse Biased[Link] Configurations ‘Transistor configurations refer to different ways of connecting transistors in electronic circuits to perform specific functions. The three main configurations are common emitter, common base, and common collector, each with its unique characteristics and advantages. Selecting the appropriate configuration is crucial to achieve the desired circuit performance, Accordingly, a transistor ean be connected in a circuit in the following ways. © Common base (CB) configuration (or) Grounded base configuration, © Common emitter (CE) configuration (of) Grounded emitter configuration. * Common collector (CC) configuration (of) Grounded collector configuration, Emitter Base Collector NPN Common Collector Configuration ¥ Common emitter configuration: Offers high voltage gain and moderate current gain, commonly used for amplification applications, Y Common base configuration: Provides high current g for impedance matching and RF amplifier circuits. ¥ Common collector configuration: Offers high voltage gain and unity current gain, commonly used for impedance buffering and voltage amplification. nd moderate voltage gain, suitable10.1 Common Emitter configuration of BJT In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and emitter, and output is taken from the collector and emitter, Here, the emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common emitter connection, Using NPN transistor Using PNP transistor Common Emitter Connection Fig.: CE configuration of an NPN transistor, practical circuit > Input Characteristics current O02 04 06 08 10 Vy Base-emitter voltage 1? characteristice CE configuration Input characteristics are the relationship between the input current and the input voltage keeping output voltage constant. Here the input current is the base current Ip, input voltage is base emitter voltage Vax, and the output voltage is collector emitter voltage Vee.First the output voltage Vex is kept at zero and the input voltage Vie is gradually increased and the input current Iy is noted. Then again, the output voltage Vex is increased like LOV, 20V and kept constant and by increasing the input voltage Vise, the input current Iy is noted. The cut in voltage ofa silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistoris 0.3 volts. In our case, itis a silicon transistor. So from the above raph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small increase in input voltage (Vue) will rapidly increases the input current (In). From the results itis observed that when the input voltage Vuk is increased initially there is no current produced, further when it is increased the input current In increases steeply. When the output voltage Ver is further increased the curve shifts right side. > Output Characteristics ‘ouput eharacteritin of commun Emiter configuration Output characteristics is the relationship between the output current and the output voltage keeping input current constant, Here the values of output current Ie and the output voltage Vcr is noted keeping input current fy constant. In active region when the output voltage is increased there is very slight change in the output voltage ‘The curve looks almost flat in the active region, Cut off region is the region where the input current is below zero, When both the junctions are forward biased, it isin saturation region, > Current gain (a) ‘The current gain of a transistor in CE. configuration is defined as the ratio of output current or collector current (IC) to the input current or base current (IB). The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is high. Therefore, the transistor in CE configuration is used for amplifying the current.[Link] between Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector configuration fo means ret Pao Low (20 to 1000) Moderate (IKQ to 3K) High (In terms of MO) Cr Fh as High (IMQ to 3MQ) ite (40KQ to 80KQ) Low (In terms of 2) Peers o 180° 0° Voltage Gait Greater than | Less than 1 Power Gain ‘High y Maximum(1) ere a Amplifier, Filter, Oscillator cartes 12,Concept of Biasing and Load line ing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit. A transistor biased in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier. 12.1 Need for DC biasing: Ifa signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BIT, it cannot be amplified, Because, for a BIT, to amplify a signal, two conditions must be met. 1. The input voltage should exceed eut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON. 2. The BIT should be in the aetive region, to be operated as an amplifier. Ifappropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then this problem can be avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active region for entire input ‘AC cycle. Henee DC biasing is needed12.2 Types of DC Biasing Circuits ‘The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are Base Resistor method Collector to Base bias Biasing with Collector feedback resistor Voltage-divider bias Base Resistor Method Fig.: Biasing with collector feedback resistor Fig.: Voltage divider biasing 12.3 DC load line & Ope When the output characteristics of'a transistor in CE configuration are considered, the curve looks as below for different input values. In the figure, the output characteristics are drawn between collector current Le and collector voltage Ver for different values of base current In. These are considered here for different input values to obtain different output curves,> Ver(volts) Operating point When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point will be present on the Y-axis (Ic), which is nothing but the saturation point. As well, when a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage (Vce) is considered, that point will be present on the X-axis, which is the cutoff point. When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line. This is called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating point. This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point, There can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective of AC signal swing, the ‘ransistor remains in active region. This can be better understood through the figure below. 1eCmA A 0 B > Veg(volts) The load line must be drawn to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a good amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-point, faithful amplification is achieved. Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by increasing, the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input. DC Load line When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line drawn at such condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no amplific: absent. The circuit will be as shown below. ion as the si al isNT. = “72 f Ith Veo Vee ‘The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be Veu=VerteRe ‘As Vec and Re are fixed values, the above one is a first-degree equation and hence will be a straight line on the output characteris « is called as D.C. Load line, The figure below shows the DC load line. 0 Vee Vp (volts) the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined, Let those two points be A and B. © To obtain A ‘When collector emitter voltage Vex =0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to Vec/Re. This ssives the maximum value of Vex. This is shown as Ver=Vecmicre This gives the point A (OA = Vec/Rc) on collector current axis, shown in the above figure. © Toobtain BWhen the collector current [c= 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be equal to the Voc. This gives the maximum value of Lc. This is shown as Vee=Vee“leRe (As le=0) This gives the point B, which means (OB = Vcc) on the collector emitter voltage axis shown in the above figure. Hence, we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line isa straight line, So, a DC load line can be drawn. Factors affecting the operating point ‘The main factor that affects the operating point is the temperature. The operating point shifts due to change in temperature. As temperature increases, the values of Ice, B, Var gets affected. + Ieyo gets doubled (for every 10° rise) + Vor decreases by 2,5my (for every 1° rise) So, the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature, Hence operating point should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. To achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced. Need for Stal ation ‘Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons. 1. Temperature dependence of Ic As the expression for collector current Le is Le=BlrHceo =flat(B+Dlcwo ‘The collector leakage current leno is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To come out of this, the biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector current Ic= 1 mA. Therefore, the operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. itis necessary to keep Ie constant 2. Individual variations As the value of B and the value of Vie are not same for every transistor, whenever a transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to stabilize the operating point. 3. Thermal runawayAAs the expression for collector current Ie is Lc=fln Hero =ln+(B+I)lcs0 The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat dissipation, If the ‘operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which increases this heat dissipation. The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal run away In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to stabilize the operating point, ie., to keep Ic constant Stability Factor: the rate of change of collector current Ic with respect to the collector leakage current Ico at constant B and In is called Stability factor. at constant Iy and B [Link] as a Switch ‘A transistor can be used as a solid state switch. Ifthe transistor is operated in the saturation region, then it acts as closed switch and when it is operated in the cut off region then it behaves as an open switch. ‘The transistor operates as a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) solid state switch. When a zero-input signal applied to the base of the transistor, it acts as an open switch. If a positive signal applied at the input terminal, then it acts like a closed switch. When the transistor operating as switeh, in the cut off region the current through the transistor is zero and voltage across it is maximum, and in the saturation region the transistor current is maximum and voltage across is zero. Therefore, both the on ~ state and off ~ state power loss is zero in the transistor switch, > Cut Off State (Open Switch) When transistor operates in the cut off region shows the following characteristies — ‘The input is grounded ie. at zero potential ‘The Vag is less that cut — in voltage 0.7 V. Both emitter — base junction and collector — base junction are reverse biased. ‘The transistor is fully ~ off acting as open switch The collector current Ic = 0 [Link] output voltage Vau = Vec. +Vcc Wee Ro Re Vet Vout Vinee ono ! rp> Saturation State (Closed Switch) istics — ‘The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following character ‘The input is connected to Vee. Base — Emitter voltage is greater than cut — in voltage (0.7 V) Both the base ~ emitter junction and base — collector junction are forward biased. ‘The transistor is fully — ON and operates as closed switch, ‘The collector current is maximum Vee fe =e and Y, = OV +Vcec Vee Re = Ves — dost th [Link] as an Amplifier For a transistor to act as an amplifier, it should be properly biased. For a transistor to work as. an ‘amplifier, we usually use the common-emitter configuration. The figure below shows how the transistor is set up when it is connected to a circuit as an amplifier. ke We In the figure given above, the input is connected in forward-biased, and the output is connected in reverse-biased. The input signal is applied on the base-emitter junction, and the output is taken through the load in the emitter-collector junction. There is also an application of DC voltage in the input circuit for amplification. Besides, a small change in signal voltage results in the change of which is mainly due to the low resistance in the input circuit.[Link] Coupled Amplifier ‘An RC-coupled amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that uses a resistor-capacitor (RC) network to couple the output of one stage of amplification to the input of the next stage. The capacitor blocks any DC voltage, while allowing AC signals to pass through. The resistor and capacitor values are carefully selected to optimize the frequency response of the amplifier. This configuration is commonly used in audio amplifiers and radio receivers due to its simplicity and effectiveness. It is a single stage amplifier in common emitter (emitter terminal is common to both input and output) configuration and voltage divider biasing. This circuit is simple and provides good stabilization Voc=15V Construction: The resistors Ri, Ro, Re provides voltage divider biasing to the transistor, which helps the transistor to work in the active region, It sets proper operating point for CE (Common Emitter) amplifier. © The Coupling capacitors Co, & Cea, are known as input and output coupling capacitors respectively. These capacitors pass AC signal from one side to the other side. At the same time, it does not allow the DC voltages to pass through it, hence itis also called blocking capacitors © The bypass capacitor, Cy & Emitter resistor, Re: Cx works as a bypass capacitor, it bypasses all the ac currents from the emitter to the ground. If this capacitor is not there in the circuit, the AC voltage developed across RE will affect the input AC voltage. The resistor Rx: provides thermal stabilization to the circuit. Working: ‘The input signal is applied to the base of the transistor through the input coupling capacitor CC1, which blocks the DC components in the AC signal, The transistor circuit amplifies the signal, and the output is taken across the load resistor RL, through the coupling capacitor CC2, which blocks the DC components present in the amplified output signal. The output signal will be a phase shifted version of the input signal by 180°, Voltage Gain (Av): ‘The voltage gain Av of an RC coupled amplifier is the ratio between output voltage (Vo) and input voltage (Vi)A= a Frequeney Response: 3 Mid range B Pion range High range © g 0.7 oy : 3 f i Frequency (log) i; Lower half-power frequency Upper halt-power frequency © Low Frequencies ‘At low frequencies (< $0 Hz), the reactance of coupling capacitor is quite high and hence very small part of the signal will pass from one stage to the next stage. The reactance of Ce is also high at low frequencies, This high reactance cannot shunt the emitter resistance Rx effectively. Due to these two factors, the voltage gains fall at low frequencies, © High Frequencies At high frequencies (> 20 kHz), the reactance Cc is very small, and it behaves as a short circuit, This sreases the loading effect of the next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain. Also, the capacitive reactance of the base-emitter junetion is low, and at high frequencies increases the base current, Therefore, the JB value reduces. Due to these two reasons, the voltage gains fall at high frequencies, © Mid Frequencies At mid frequencies (50 Hz to 20 kHz), the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of coupling capacitors in this frequency range is such as maintaining a uniform voltage gain, Thus, as the frequency increases in this range, the reactance of Cc decreases which tends to increase the gain. However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of the first stage and hence lower gain, These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid-frequency. 16. Introduction to FET A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that controls the flow of electric current using an electric field, FETs are essential in electronics because they act as switches or amplifiers in circuits with high efficiency and low power consumption, Unlike Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTS), which rely on current control, FETS control current using voltage, making them voltage-controlled devices, Structure of FET ‘The basic structure of a FET includes three terminals:«Source (S): Where current enters the FET + Drain (D): Where current exits the FET. + Gate (G): Controls the flow of current between the Source and Drain by applying a voltage. How a FET Works In a FET, a thin channel exists between the Source and Drain for current flow. The Gate terminal is placed near this channel, separated by a thin insulating layer. By applying a voltage to the Gate, we create an electric field that influences the conductivity of the channel, either allowing or preventing current flow. + When there is no voltage at the Gate: The channel might be open or closed depending on the FET type (¢.g., n-channel or p-channel), meaning it can naturally conduct or block current. ‘+ When voltage is applied to the Gate: The electric field created affects the charge carriers in the channel, controlling the current between the Source and Drain, ‘Types of FETS + Junetion FET (JFET): Uses a pn junction to control current. + Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET): Uses a metal oxide layer for insulation, which gives better control and efficiency, making it common in digital circuits. D ID G G is Is ort uosreT Traneinor Trneinor 16.1 Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor MOSFETs are a type of Field Effect Transistor (FET) widely used in electronic devices for switching and amplification. They are known for their high input impedance and fast switching speeds. MOSFETS are classified into two main types: 1. Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET): Normally off; requires a positive gate voltage to tum on (for n-channel) or a negative gate voltage (for p-channel), 2. Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET): Normally on; can conduct without any gate voltage. Applying voltage to the gate can either increase or decrease the conductivity. MOSFETs have three main regions: 1. Source ($): Terminal through which current enters, 2. Drain (D): Temminal through which current exits 3. Gate (G): Controls the current flow by applying voltage.‘A thin insulating layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) separates the Gate from the channel (between the Source and Drain), preventing direct current flow from the Gate to the channel and ensuring that only an electric field affects the channel conductivity. + n-channel MOS the Gate. + p-channel MOSF the Gate. ET: Has an n-type channel; conducts when a positive voltage is applied to Jas a p-type channel; conducts when a negative voltage is applied to N-Channel Enhancement Mode MOSFET ¥ Substrate Figure | - N-Channel EMOSFET 1, No Gate Voltage (Ves = 0): + With zero voltage applied to the Gate, no conductive channel exists between the Source and Drain. * The MOSFET remains off, preventing current flow from the Drain to the Source [Link] Gate Voltage Applied (Ves > 0): + Applying a positive voltage at the Gate creates an electric field that attracts electrons (negatively charged carriers) towards the region just under the Gate, + As clectrons accumulate, they form an inversion layer, creating an n-type conductive channel between the Source and Drain. [Link] Voltage (V © The Gate voltage must reach a certain level, called the threshold voltage (Vru),for the channel to form fully and allow significant current to flow between the Source and Drain. 4,Channel Formation and Current Flow (Ves> V1 + When the Gate voltage exceeds the threshold voltage, a conductive n-type channel is fully established, + Electrons flow from the Source to the Drain when a voltage is applied between the Drain and Source (Vis), allowing current (Ip) to flow through the MOSFET. [Link] Gate Voltage (Vos >> Vin) + Increasing the Gate voltage widens the channel, reducing resistan (Ip) to flow between the Source and Drain, and allowing more current+ The MOSFET operates in the linear or ohmic region when Vos is low and in the saturation region when Vos is high, [Link] Current Flow: + The MOSFET acts as a voltage-controlled switch, where the amount of current from Drain to Source depends on the Gate voltage. This property is widely used for switching and amplifying signals in electronic ci > N-Channel Depletion Mode MOSFET. Metallization Layer S. jource og D Dielectric Diffused Channel P-type Substrate [Link] Gate Voltage (Ves = 0): + Inthe depletion mode MOSFET, a conductive n-type channel already exists between the Source and Drain, allowing current to flow even without any Gate voltage. + This makes the MOSFET normally on. [Link] Gate Voltage Applied (Vos <0): + Applying a negative voltage to the Gate creates an electric field that repels electrons from the channel. ‘This reduces the channel width, increasing its resistance, which depletes the channel of charge carriers and reduces current flow (Ip). 3-Threshold Voltage (Negative V; Ata specific negative Gate voltage, called the threshold voltage (Vu), the channel is pinched off completely, and current flow from Drain to Source stops. [Link] Gate Voltage Applied (Ves > 0): n a positive voltage is applied to the Gate, it attracts more electrons into the channel, + Wh enhancing its conductivity. ‘This increases current flow from Drain to Source, effectively enhancing the channel beyond its natural conductive state. '[Link] Modes:* The MOSFET can operate in a depletion mode (by reducing current flow with a negative Gate voltage) or in an enhancement mode (by increasing current flow with a positive Gate voltage). [Link] Control: + This ability to control current with both positive and negative Gate voltages makes the N- Channel Depletion Mode MOSFET versatile for applications requiring both normally-on and controlled-off states, O26. Enhancement tape ® Channel fi of Homework: Construction and working of P channel Enhancement & Depletion mode MOSFET