B.

Tech-ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE

FIFTH SEMESTER
CS3551 – DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING
2 mark Questions

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
1. Define distributed system.
A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appears to its
users as a single coherent system. A distributed system is one in which components located at
networked communicate and coordinate their actions only by passing message.
2 List the characteristics of distributed system?
 Programs are executed concurrently, support for resource sharing.
 Openness
 Concurrency
 Scalability
 Fault Tolerance (Reliability)
 Transparency
 Components can fail independently (isolation, crash)
3 Mention the examples of distributed system.
 The internet, intranet.
 Department computing cluster
 Corporate systems
 Cloud systems (e.g. Google, Microsoft, etc.)
 Mobile and ubiquitous computing
4. Mention the challenges in distributed system.
1. Heterogeneity
2. Openness
3. Security
4. Scalability
5. Failure handling
6. Concurrency
7. Transparency
5. What are the Advantages of Distributed Systems?
1. Performance
2. Distribution
3. Reliability (fault tolerance)
4 .Incremental growth
5. Sharing of data/resources
6. Communication
6. What are the Disadvantages of Distributed Systems?
1. Difficulties of developing distributed software
2. Networking problems
3. Security problems
Software
Little software exists compared to PCs (for example) but the situation is improving with
the cloud.
Networking
Still slow and can cause other problems (e.g., when disconnected)
Security
Data may be accessed by unauthorized users through network interfaces
Privacy
Data may be accessed securely but without the owner’s consent (significant issue in modern
systems)
[Link] are the Applications of Distributed system?
 Email
 News
 Multimedia information systems - video conferencing
 Airline reservation system
 BanKing system
 File downloads (BitTorrent)
 Messaging
8. Write the different trends in distributed systems?
 The emergence of pervasive networking technology;
 The emergence of ubiquitous computing coupled with the desire to support user
mobility in distributed Systems.
9. Advantages of Distributed Systems vs. Centralized
 Economics
 Speed
 Geographic and Responsibility Distribution
 Reliability
 Extendibility
10. Write the Resource Sharing of Distributed system?
1. Share hardware,
2. software,
3. data and information
Hardware Devices
Printers, disks, memory, sensors
Software Sharing
Compilers, libraries, toolkits, computational
Kernels
Data
Databases, files

11. What are the Design issues of Distributed system?

 Openness
 Resource Sharing
 Concurrency
  Scalability
 Fault-Tolerance
 Transparency
 High-Performance
13 .Write the issues arising from Distributed Systems?
 Naming - How to uniquely identify resources.
 Communication - How to exchange data and information reliably with good
performance.
 Software Structure - How to make software open, extensible, scalable, with high-
performance.
 Workload Allocation - Where to perform computations and various services.
 Consistency Maintenance - How to Keep consistency at a reasonable cost.
14 .What is Communication in Distributed Systems?
 Communication is an essential part of distributed systems - e.g., clients and servers
must communicate for request and response.
 Communication normally involved - transfer of data from sender to receiver -
synchronization among processes.
[Link] are types of Communication in Distributed Systems?
 Client-Server
 Group Multicast
 Function Shipping
 Performance of distributed systems depends critically on communication
Performance
16. Distributed System Software Structure
 It must be easy to add new services (flexibility, extensibility, openness requirements)
 Kernel is normally restricted to memory allocation
 process creation and scheduling
 interposes communication
17. List any two resources of hardware and software, which can be shared in distributed
systems with example. (NOV 2017)
 Hardware – Printer, Disks, Fax machine, Router, Modem.
 Software – Application Programs, Shared Files, Shared Databases, Documents,
Services.
18. Write down the Principles of distributed systems.
The principles of distributed computing, emphasizing the fundamental issues
underlying the design of distributed systems and networks: communication, coordination, fault
tolerance, locality, parallelism, self-organization, synchronization, uncertainty.
19. What is clock skew and clock drift? APRIL/MAY 2018
 The instantaneous difference between the readings of any two clocks is called their
skew.
 Clock drift means that they count time at different rates, and so diverge.
20. What is clocks drift rate?
A clock’s driftrate is the change in the offset (difference in reading) between the clock
and a nominal perfect reference clock per unit of time measured by the reference clock.

21. What are the two modes of synchronization? Write their format?
The two modes are:
External synchronization:
In order to Know at what time of day events occur at the processes in our distributed
system – for example, for accountancy purposes – it is necessary to synchronize the
Processes’ clocks, Ci , with an authoritative, external source of time. This is external
synchronization
For a synchronization bound D>0, and for a source S of UTC time, |S(t) –Ci(t)|<T, for
i=1,2,…N and for all real times t in I.
Internal synchronization:
If the clocks Ci are synchronized with one another to a Known degree of accuracy, then
We can measure the interval between two events occurring at different computers by appealing
to their local clocks, even though they are not necessarily synchronized to an external source
of time. This is internal synchronization. For a synchronization bound D>0,|Ci(t)-Cj(t)|<D, for
i,j=1,2,…N. and for all real times t in I.
22. Explain Faultry and Crash Failure.
 A clock that does not Keep to whatever correctness conditions apply is defined to be
faulty.
 A clock’s crash failure is said to occur when the clock stops ticKing altogether;any
other clock failure is an arbitrary failure. A historical example of an arbitrary failure is
that of a clock with the ‘Y2K bug’, which broKe the monotonicity condition by
registering the date after 31 December 1999 as 1 January 1900 instead of 2000; another
example is a clock whose batteries are very low and whose drift rate suddenly becomes
very large.
23. How the clock synchronization done in Cristian’s method?
 A single time server might fail, so they suggest the use of a group of synchronized
servers
 It does not deal with faulty servers
24. Explain Logical time and logical clocks.
Logical time
 Lamport proposed a model of logical time that can be used to provide an ordering
among the events at processes running in different computers in a distributed system.
 Logical time allows the order in which the messages are presented to be inferred
without recourse to clocks.
Logical clocks
• Lamport invented a simple mechanism by which the happened before ordering can be
captured numerically, called a logical clock.
A Lamport logical clock is amonotonically increasing software counter, whose value need bear
no particular relationship to any physical clock. Each process pi Keeps its own logical clock,
Li , which it uses to apply so- called Lamport timestamps to events.
We denote the timestamp of event e at pi by Li(e) , and by L(e) we denote the timestamp of
event e at whatever process it occurred at.
25. What is vector clock? Explain.
Vector clocks
 Mattern and Fidge developed vector clocks to overcome the shortcoming of Lamport’s
clocks: the fact that from L(e)<L(e’)we cannot conclude that e ->e’
 A vector clock for a system of N processes is an array of Nintegers. Each process Keeps
its own vector clock, Vi , which it uses to timestamp local events.
 Like Lamport timestamps, processes piggybacK vector timestamps on the messages
they send to one another, and there are simple rules for updating the clocks:
 TaKing the componentwise maximum of two vector timestamps in this way is Known
as a merge operation.
26 .Explain global states and consistent cuts with example.
Global state of a distributed system consists of
–Local stateof each process: messages sent and messages received
–State of each channel:messages sent but not received

27. State the issues in Clocks.

The Importance of Accurate Time on Computer Networks. The synchronization of time on
computers and networks is often vitally important. Without it, the time on individual
computers will slowly drift away from each other at varying degrees until potentially each has
a significantly different time.
 UNIT – II
LOGICAL TIME AND GLOBAL STATE

1 .What is meant by group communication?

Group communication is a multicast operation is more appropriate- this is an operation
that sends a single message from one process to each of the members of a group of process,
usually in such a way that the membership of the group is transparent to the sender.

2 .Difference between synchronous and asynchronous communication?

In synchronous form of communication, the sending and receiving processes
synchronize at every message. In this case, both send and receive are blocking operations.
Whenever a send is issued the sending process is blocked until the corresponding receive is
issued. Whenever receive is issued, the process blocks until a message arrives.
In asynchronous form of communication, the use of the send operation is non-blocking in
that the sending process is allowed to proceed as soon as the message has been copied to a local
buffer and the transmission of the message proceeds in parallel with the
sending process. The receive operation can have blocking and non-blocking variants.

3. What are the forms of message ordering paradigms?

 FIFO
 non-FIFO
 Casual order
 Synchronous order

4. What are the characterisitics of group communication?

 Fault tolerance based on replicated server
 Finding the discovery servers from spontaneous networks
 Better performance through replicated data
 Propagation of event notification

5. What are the two phases in obtaining a global snapshot?

 First locally recording the snapshot at every process
 Second distributing the resultant global snapshot to all the initiators

6. What are the two optimization techniques are provided to the Chandy-Lamport
algorithm?
 The first optimization combines snap-shots concurrently initiated by multiple
processes into a single snapshot.
 This optimization is linked with the second optimization, which deals with the
efficient distribution of the global snapshot.

7. How a FIFO execution is implemented?

 To implement a FIFO logical channel over a non-FIFO channel, a separate numbering
scheme is used to sequence the messages.
 The sender assigns a sequence number and appends connection_id to each
message and then transmitted then the receiver arranges the incoming messages according to
the sender’s sequence numbers and accepts “next” message s per sequence.
8. What is Guard?
A Guard Gi is a Boolean expression. If a Guard Gi evaluates to true then CLi is said to be
enabled otherwise it is disabled.

9. List the criteria to be met by a casual ordering protocol.

 Safety
 Liveliness

10. Write the drawback of centralized algorithm.

 Single point of failure
 Congestion

11. List the application of Casual order protocol.

 Updating replicated data,
 Allocating requests in a fair manner
 Synchronizing multimedia streams

12 What is the purpose of Chandy and Lamport algorithm?

 Chandy and Lamport proposed a snapshot algorithm for determining global
states of distributed systems.
 This algorithm records a set of process and channels as a snapshot for the process
set. The recorded global state is consistent.

13. Define RMI.

Each process contains a collection of objects, some of which can receive both local and
remote invocations whereas the other objects can receive only local invocations as shown in
figure. Method invocation between objects in different processes, whether in the same
computer or not, are known as remote method invocations. Method invocation between objects
in the same process is local method invocation. We refer to objects that can receive remote
invocation as remote objects.

14. What are the main choices to be considered in design of RMI?

RMI invocation semantics
a. Retry-reply protocols, where we showed that doOperation can be implemented in
different ways to provide different guarantees.

b. The main choices are:

i. Retry request message: Controls whether to retransmit the request message until either a
reply is received or the server is assumed to have failed.
ii. Duplicate filtering: Controls when retransmissions are used and whether to filter out
duplicate requests at the server.

[Link] of results: Controls whether to keep a history of result message to enable

lost results to be retransmitted without re-executing the operations at the server.

15. List the choices of RPC invocation semantics.

The choices of RPC invocation semantics are defined as follows:
a Maybe semantics: With maybe semantics, the remote procedure call may be executed once
or not at all. Maybe semantics is useful only for applications in which occasional failed calls
are acceptable. Maybe semantics arises when no fault-tolerance measures are applied and suffer
from the following types of failure;
i. Omission failures if the request message is lost;
ii. Crash failures when the server containing the remote operation fails.

b. At-least-once semantics :With at-least-once semantics ,the invoker receives either a result
,in which case the invoker knows that the procedure was executed at least once ,or an exception
informing it that no result was received .At-least-once semantics can be achieved by the
retransmission of request message . Which masks the omission failures of the request message.
At-least-once semantics can suffer from the following types of failure:
i. crash failure when the sever containing the remote procedure fails;
ii. arbitrary failures – incase when the request message is retransmitted, the remote server may
receive it and execute the procedure more than once, possible causing wrong va lues to be
returned.

c. At-most-once semantics : With at-most-once semantics , the caller receives either a Result
, in which case the caller knows that the procedure was executed exactly once, or an Exception
informing if that no r using result was received, in which case the procedure will have been
executed either once or not at all. At-most-once semantics can be achieved by all, At-most-
once semantics can be achieved by using all of the fault-tolerance.

16. Define IDL.

Interface Definition Languages (IDLs) are designed to allow procedures implemented
in different languages to invoke one another. An IDL provides a notation for defining interfaces
in which each of the parameters of an operation may be described as for input or output in
addition to having its type specified.

17. List the used of IDL in web services.

The concept of an IDL was initially developed for RPC systems but applies equally to RMI
and also web service. Some of them are:
I. Sun XDR as an example of an IDL for RPC
II. CORBA IDL as an example of an IDL for RMI
III. The web service Description Language (WSDL), which is designed for an Internet wide
RPC supporting web service.

18. Define object reference.

Objects can be accessed via object reference. For example in java a variable that appears
to hold an object actually holds a reference to that object. To invoke a method in an object the
object reference and method name are given together with any necessary arguments. The object
whose method name is invoked is sometimes called the target and sometimes the receiver.
Object reference are first class values, meaning that they may be assigned to variables, passed
as arguments and returned as results of methods.
19. What is meant by garbage collection?
It is necessary to provide a means of freeing the space occupied by objects when they
are no longer needed. A language such as java, that can detect automatically when an object is
no longer accessible recovers the space and makes it available for allocation to other objects.
This process is called garbage collection; the programmer has to cope with the freeing of space
allocated to objects. This can be a major source of errors.

20. What is persistent object store?

An object that is guaranteed to live between activations of processes is called a persistet
object. Persistent objects are generally managed by persistent object stores, which store their
state in a marshaled from on disk. In generally a persistent object store will manage very large
numbers of persistent object which are stored in a disk or in a database until they are needed.
21. Define RPC.
The software components required to implement RPC are The client that accesses a
service includes one stub procedure for each procedure the service interface. The stub
procedure behaves like a local procedure to the client but instead of executing the call it
marshals the procedure identifier and the arguments into a request message which it sends via
its communication module to the server. When the reply message arrives it unmarshals the
results.

22. What is event notification?

The distributed event based system extend the local event model by allowing multiple
object at different location to be notified of events takes place at an object. They use the publish
subscribe paradigm. A publish subscribe system is a system where publishers publish
structured events to an event service and subscriber express interest in particular events through
subscriptions which can be arbitrary patterns over the structure events.
23. List the example of publish subscribe system.
Publish-subscribe system is used in a wide variety of application domains particularly
those related to a large scale dissemination of events.
Financial information systems.
Other area with live feeds of real time data (including RSS feeds)
24. Define callbacks.
The general idea behind callbacks is that instead of clients polling the server to find out
whether some event has occurred, the server should inform its clients whenever that event
occurs. The term callback is used to refer to a server’s action of notifying clients about an event.
25. Define thread.
A thread is the operating system abstraction of an activity (the term derives from the
phrase ‘thread of execution’). An execution environment is the unit of resource management:
a collection of local kernel managed resources to which its threads have access
UNIT – III
 DISTRIBUTED MUTEX & DEADLOCK
1. What is distributed deadlock? Explain with example.
With deadlock detection schemes, a transaction is aborted only when it is involved in a
deadlock. Most deadlock detection schemes operate by finding cycles in the transaction wait-
for graph. In a distributed system involving multiple servers being accessed by multiple
transactions, a global wait-for graph can in theory be constructed from the local ones. There
can be a cycle in the global wait-for graph that is not in any single local one – that is, there can
be a distributed deadlock
2. Explain the ‘snapshot’ algorithm of Lamport.
The ‘snapshot’ algorithm of Chandy and Lamport describe a ‘snapshot’ algorithm for
determining global states of distributed systems, which we now present. The goal of the
algorithm is to record a set of process and channel states (a ‘snapshot’) for a set of processes
pi( i = 1,2,.N ) such that, even though the combination of recorded states may never have
occurred at the same time, the recorded global state is consistent
3 Explain phantom deadlocks.
A deadlock that is 'detected' but is not really a deadlock is called phantom deadlock. In
distributed deadlock detection, information about wait-for relationships between transactions
is transmitted from on server to another. If there is a deadlock, the necessary information will
eventually be collected in one place and a cycle will be detected. Ja this procedure will take
some time, there is a chance that one of the transactions that Holds a lock will meanwhile have
released it, in which case the deadlock will no longer exist.
4 Explain edge chasing deadlock detection technique in distributed systems.
A distributed approach to deadlock detection uses a technique called edge chasing or
path pushing. In this approach, the global wait-for graph is not constructed, but each of the
servers involved has Knowledge about some of its edges. The servers attempt to find cycles by
forwarding messages called probes, which follow the edges of the graph throughout the
distributed system. A probe message consists of transaction wait-for relationships representing
a path in the global wait-for graph.
5. Define Distributed Mutual Exclusion.
A condition in which there is a set of processes only one of which is able to access a
given resource or perform a given function at a time.
6. Compare Deadlock and Starvation
Deadlock happens when two or more process indefinitely gets stopped when it attempts to
enter or exit the critical section
Starvation is the indefinite postponement of entry for a process that has requested it. Without
Deadlock Starvation may also occur. No starvation leads to fairness condition.

7. What are the approaches to implement distributed mutual exclusion.

  Token based approach
 Non Token based approach
 Quorum based approach
8. What are the three states of Mutual Exclusion?
It is of three states

 Requesting Control Section

 Executing Control Section
 Or Neither requesting nor executing control section(idle)
9. Define Throughput.
The rate at which the system executes request for the critical section if synchronization delay
is SD and E is the average critical section execution time, then the throughput is given by the
equation System Throughput=1/(SD+E).
10 Define Response time.
The time interval is the request wait for its control section execution to be over after its
request message have been sent out .It does not include the time request waits at a site before
its request message have been sent out.
11. List out the transparencies in file system.
 Access transparency
 Location transparency
 Mobility transparency
 Performance transparency
 Scaling transparency
12. What is meant by concurrency control?
Changes to a file by one client should not interfere with the operation of other clients
simultaneously accessing or changing the same file. This is well-known issue of concurrency
control .The need for concurrency control for accss to shared data in many applications Is
widely accepted and techniques are known for its implementation ,but they are costly .Most
current file services follow morden UNIX standards in providing advisery or mandatoryfile or
record-level locking.
13. What is file replication?
In a file service that supports replication, a file may be represented by several copies of
its contents at different locations. This has two benefits-its enables multiple servers to share
the load of providing a service to clients accessing the same set of files, enhancing the
scalability of the service, and it enhances fault tolerance by enabling clients to locate another
server that holds a copy of the file when one has failed. Few file services support replication
fully, but most support the catching of files or portions of files locally, a limited form of
replication.
14. What is meant by directory services?
 The directory services provide a mapping between text names for files and their UFIDs.
Client may obtain the UFIDs of a file by quoting its text name to the directory services. The
directory services provides the function needed to generate directories, to add new file name to
directories and to obtain UFIDs from directories. It is client of the flat file services; its directory
is stored in files of the flat services. When a hierarchic file-naming scheme is adopted as in
UNIX, directories hold references to other directories.
15. what are the timestamps in called caching?

 Tc is the time when the cache entry was last validated.

 Tm is the when the block was last modified at the server.
 A cache entry is valid at time T if T-Tc is less than a freshness interval t,or if the value
for Tm recorded t the client matches the value of Tm at the server (that is, the data has
not been modified at the server since the cache entry was made).
[Link] is condition used to validate caching?
(T-Tc<t) v (Tm client=Tm server)
[Link] the measures to be considered to reduce traffic in getattr.
Whenever a new value of Tmserver is received at a client, it is applied to all cache entries
derived from the relevant file.
The current attribute values are sent ‘piggybacked’ with the result of every operation on a
file, and if the value of Tmserver has changed the client uses it to update the cache entries
relating to the file
18. When the name is resolved?
The name is resolved when it is translated into data about the named resource or object, often
in order to invoke an action upon it. The association between a name and an object is called a
binding. In general, names are bound to attributes of the named objects, rather than the
implementation of the objects themselves. An attribute is the value of a property associated
with an object.
19. What is meant by URI?
URI-Uniform Resource Identifiers came about from the need to identify resources on
the web, and other internet resources such as electronic mailboxes. An important goal was to
identify resources in a coherent way, so that they could all be processed by common software
such as browser. URIs is ‘uniform’ in that their syntax incorporates that of indefinitely many
individual types of resource identifier(i.e URI schemas),and there are procedures for managing
the global namespace of schemas. The advantage of uniformity is that eases the process of
introducing new types of identifier, as well as using existing types of identifier in new contexts
without disrupting existing usage.

20. What is mean by URN?

 Uniform Resource Names are URIs that are used as pure resource names rather than
locators.
For example, the URI:
Mid:0E4FC272-5C02-11D9-B115-000A95B55BC8@[Link]
Is a URN that identifies the email message containing it in its ‘message-id’ field. The URI
distinguishes that message from any other email message. But it does not provide the message’s
address in any store, so a lookup operation is needed to find it.
[Link] is global name services?
The Global name Service developed at the Digital Equipment corporation systems,
Research Center,is a descentdant of Grapevine with ambitious goals, including:
 com- Commercial organization.
 edu- universities and other educational institutions.
 gov- US governmental agencies
 mil- US military organization
 net- major network support centers
 org- organizations not mentioned above
[Link] is meant by navigation?
The process of locating naming data from than more than one name server in order to
resolve a name is called navigation. The client name resolution software carries out navigation
on behalf of the client. It communicates with name servers as necessary to resolve a name.
23. What is multicast navigation?
In multicast navigation, a client multicast the name to be resolved and required object type to
the group of name servers. Only the server that holds the named attributes responds to the
request. Unfortunately, however, if the name proves to be unbound, the request is greeted with
silence.
24. What is iterative navigation?
One navigation model that DNS supports is known as iterative navigation. To resolve
a name, a client present the name to the local name server, which attempts to resolve it. If the
local name server has the name, it returns the result immediately. If it does not it will suggest
another server that will ba able to help. Resolution proceeds at the new server, with further
navigation as necessary until the name is located or is discovered to be unbounded.
25. What is meant by DNS?
The domain name system is a name service design whose main naming database is used
across the internet. It was devised principally by mockapetris and specified in RFC 1034 and
RFC 1035.

UNIT – IV
 CONSENSUS & RECOVERY
1. Define Roll back recovery?
Roll back recovery is defines as a system recovers correctly if its internal state is
consistent with the observable behavior of the system before the failure.
2 .What is a local checkpoint?
A local checkpoint is a snapshot of the state of the process at a given instance and the
event of recording the state of a process is called local check pointing.
3. What are the types of messages in recovery?
 In-transit messages
 Lost messages
 Delayed messages
 Orphan messages
 Duplicate messages

4 .What is an Orphan message?

Messages with receive recorded but message send not recorded are called orphan
messages.
5. Classify the checkpoint-based rollback recovery techniques.

 Uncoordinated check pointing

 Coordinated check pointing
 Communication induced check pointing
6 .What is the necessity of Uncoordinated check pointing?
Each process takes its checkpoints independently. This eliminates the synchronization
overhead.
7 .What are the types of communication-induced check pointing?
 Model-based check pointing
 Index-based check pointing
8 .What are the advantages of pessimistic logging?
 Immediate output commit
 Restart from most recent checkpoint
 Recovery limited to failed process
 Simple garbage collection

9. State the role of Index-based checkpointing.

Index based communication-induced check pointing assigns monotonically increasing indexes
to checkpoints, such that the checkpoints having the same index at different processes from a
consistent state.
10. What are the types of rollback-recovery protocols?

 Pessimistic logging,
 Optimistic logging
 Causal logging protocols

11 .Compare agreement problem and the consensus problem

The difference between the agreement problem and the consensus problem is that in the
agreement problem, a single process has the initial value, whereas in the consensus problem,all
processes have an initial value.
12. Write about Reliable Broadcast (RTB)
RTB requires recognition of a failure,even if no message is sent.
It is required to distinguish between a failed process and a slow process
RTB requires eventual delivery of messages, even if sender fails before sending.
In this case, a null message needs to get sent. In RB, this condition is not there.

13. What is meant by hardware and software clock?

Clock devices can be programmed to generate interrupts at regular intervals in orders that, for
example, time slicing can be [Link] operating system reads the node’s hardware
clock value, H(t) , scales it and adds an offset so as to produce software clock C (t)=αHi(t)+β
that approximately measures real ,physical time t for process pi.
14. What is clock resolution?
Note that successive events will correspond to different timestamps only if the clock
resolution-the period between updates of the clock-value-is smaller than the time interval
betw4een successive events. The rate at which events occur depends on such factors as the
length of the processor instruction cycle.
15. What is clock drift?
Clock drift, which means that they count time at different rates and so diverge. The
underling oscillators are subject to physical variations, with the consequence that their
frequencies of oscillation differ. Moreover, even the same clock’s frequency varies with
temperature. Designs exist that attempt to compensate for this variation, but they cannot
eliminate it. A clock’s drift rate is the change in the offset (difference in reading) between the
clock and a nominal perfect reference clock per unit of time measured by the reference clock.
16. What is IAT?
Computer clocks can be synchronized to external sources of highly accurate time. The
most accurate physical clocks use atomic oscillators, whose drift rate is about one part in
[Link] most accurate physical clocks use atomic oscillators, whose drift rate is about one part
in 1013. The output of these atomic clocks is used as the standard for elapsed real a time, known
as International Atomic Time.
17. What is CUT?
Coordinated Universal Time-abbreviated as UTC (From the French equivalent)-is as
international standard for timekeeping. It is based on atomic time, but a so-called ‘leap second’
is inserted-or, more rarely, deleted-occasionally to keep it in step with astronomical time.
18. What do you meant by distributed garbage?
An object is considered to be garbage if there are no longer any reference to it anywhere
in the distributed system. The memory taken up by that object can be reclaimed once it is
known as to be garbage.
17. Define Global History
Let us return to our general system p of N processes pi(i=1,2,3,…..N). Here a series of
events occurs at each process, and that we may characterize the execution of each process by
its history.
18. List the assumption considered in snapshot algorithm
– Neither channels nor processes fail
– Reliable communications ensure every message sent is received exactly once
– Channels are unidirectional
– Messages are received in FIFO order
– There is a path between any two processes
– Any process may initiate a global snapshot at any time
– Processes may continue to function normally during a snapshot
19. Define Failure detector.
A failure detector is a service that processes queries about whether a particular process
has failed .It is often implemented by an object local to each process that runs failure detection
algorithms in conjunction with its counterparts at the other processes.
20. List the properties of failure detector
A failure detector is not necessarily accurate. Most fails into the category of unreliable
failure detectors.
 A result of unsuspected
 A result of Suspected

21. Define critical section problem

 The application – level protocol for executing a critical section is as follows
 enter() - enter critical section – block if necessary
 resurceAccesses() - access shared resources in critical section
 exit() - leave critical section other processes may now enter.

24. What is meant by election?

Election: choosing a unique process for a particular role is called an election
– All the processes agree on the unique choice
– For example, server in dist. mutex
–
25. List the famous mutual exclusion algorithms
 Center server algorithm
 Ring- Based algorithms
 Mutual Exclusion using multicast and Logical Clocks

UNIT – V
CLOUD COMPUTING
1. What is peer to peer system?
Peer-to-peer systems aim to support useful distributed services and applications using
data and computing resources available in the personal computers and workstations that are
present in the Internet and other networks in ever-increasing numbers.
2 What is goal of peer to peer system?
The goal of peer-to-peer systems is to enable the sharing of data and resources on a
very large scale by eliminating any requirement for separately managed servers and their
associated infrastructure.
3 What are the characteristics of peer to peer system?
Their design ensures that each user contributes resources to the system.
• Although they may differ in the resources that they contribute, all the nodes in a peer-to-peer
system have the same functional capabilities and responsibilities.
• Their correct operation does not depend on the existence of any centrally administered
systems.
• They can be designed to offer a limited degree of anonymity to the providers and users of
resources.

4 What is the need of peer to peer middleware system? NOV/DEC 2017

Peer-to-peer middleware systems are designed specifically to meet the need for the
automatic placement and subsequent location of the distributed objects managed by peer -to-
peer systems and applications.
5. Write the Non-functional requirements of peer-to-peer middleware system?

 Global scalability
 Load balancing
 Optimization for local interactions between neighboring peers
 Accommodating to highly dynamic host availability
[Link] is the role of routing overlays in peer to peer system?
Peer-to-peer systems usually store multiple replicas of objects to ensure availability. In
that case, the routing overlay maintains Knowledge of the location of all the available replicas
and delivers requests to the nearest ‘live’ node (i.e. one that has not failed) that has a copy of
the relevant object.

[Link] are the tasks performed by routing overlay?

 Insertion of objects
 Deletion of objects
  Node addition and removal

[Link] are the generations of peer to peer system?
Three generations of peer-to-peer system and application development can be
identified.
 The first generation was launched by the Napster music exchange service [OpenNap
2001].
 A second generation of file sharing applications offering greater scalability, anonymity
and fault tolerance quickly followed including Freenet, Gnutella, Kazaa and BitTorrent
 The third generation is characterized by the emergence of middleware layers for the
application-independent management of distributed resources on a global Scale
9. What are the case studies used in overlay?

 Pastry is the message routing infrastructure deployed in several applications

 including PAST.
 Tapestry is the basis for the Ocean Store storage system.
10. Give the characteristics of Peer-to-Peer systems?
Its design ensures that each user contributes resources to the system. Although they
may differ in the resources that they contribute, all the nodes in a peer-to-peer system have the
same functional capabilities and responsibilities. Its correct operation does not depend on the
existence of any centrally administered systems. They can be designed to offer a limited degree
of anonymity to the providers and users of resources. A key issue for their efficient operation
is the choice of an algorithm for the placement of data across many hosts and subsequent access
to it in a manner that balances the workload and ensures availability without adding undue
overheads.
11. What is process?
Process means a program in execution. Process execution must progress sequential order.
12. What is process migration?
The phenomenon of shifting a process from one machine to another one which is called
process migration.

13. What is Load?

Load may be define as number of tasks are running in queue, CPU utilization, load
average, I/O utilization, amount of free CPU time/memory, etc.

14. List desirable features of good process migration mechanism.

  Transparency
 Efficiency
 Minimal interference
 Minimize freezing time
 Minimal residual dependencies.
15. List any three challenges of process migration.
 Process state capturing and transfer
 Scheduling
 System call
16. What are strategies for the migration of files?
 If the file is locked by the migrating process and resides on the same system, then
transfer file with the process
 If the process is moved temporarily, transfer the file only after an access request was
made by the migrated process.
 17. Define thread.
A minimal software processor in which context a series of instructions can be executed.
Saving a thread context implies stopping the current execution and saving all the data needed
to continue the execution at a later stage
18. Explain the benefit of process migration
 Reducing network traffic
 Improving system reliability
 Higher throughput and effective resource utilization
19. List the types of process scheduling techniques.
 Task management approaching
 Load balancing approaching
 Load – Sharing approaching
20. What is kernel level thread?
In kernel level thread, thread management is done by kernel. OS support the kernel level thread.
Since kernel managing threads, kernel can schedule another thread if a given thread blocks
rather than blocking the entire processes.

21. What is user level thread?

User level thread uses user space for thread scheduling. These threads are transparent
to the operating system. User level threads are created by runtime libraries that cannot execute
privileged instructions.
22. What is preemptive process migration?
 Preemptive process transfer involve the transfer of a process that is partially executed.
This transfer is an expensive operation as the collection of a process’s state can be difficult.
23. What is non-preemptive process migration?
Non –preemptive process transfers involve the transfer of process that have not begun
execution an hence do not require the transfer of the proces’s state. In both types of transfers,
information about the environment in which the process will execute must be transferred to the
receiving node.
24. What is preemptive process migration?
Preemptive process transfer involve the transfer of a process that is partially executed. This
transfer is an expensive operation as the collection of a process’s state can be difficult.
25. What is non-preemptive process migration?
Non –preemptive process transfers involve the transfer of process that have not begun
execution an hence do not require the transfer of the process’s state. In both types of transfers,
information about the environment in which the process will execute must be transferred to the
receiving node.