1 | Page BY SIR.

RUBEN VENANCE MGENI F3 GEO NOTES - 2021

MAP READING AND MAP

INTERPRETATION
THE CONCEPT OF MAP READING
► WHAT IS A MAP? Is a scaled representation of any part or whole of the Earth’s
surface on a flat body like a piece of paper, blackboard, wood or a cloth.
PURPOSES OF A MAP
1. To provide information on the existence, the location and the distance
between ground features.
2. To indicate variations in terrain, heights of natural features and the extent
of vegetation cover.
TYPES OF MAP
 There are two types of map, which are topographical and statistical maps.
A. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
♥ Refers to the maps which represent the general landscape.
♥ They show physical features including both natural and manmade features such
as mountains, valleys, oceans, hills, roads and buildings.
B. STATISTICAL MAPS
 These are the maps which show distribution of different aspects such as
temperature, rainfall, settlement and vegetation.
 For example; dot maps, isoline maps and choropleth maps.

ASPECTS OF MAP
1. Map reading:
– It is a process of examining the given topographical map to identify the
information represented by symbols and signs.
2. Map interpretation:
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– It is the recognition of natural and manmade features and assessing their

significance.
– It involves assessing things like climate, relief, drainage, economic
activities, mode of transport and vegetation distribution.
3. Map analysis:
– It is the process of working out the relationship of the identified
geographical information with others which have not directly been shown in
the map.
– It involves both map interpretation and map reading.
A person who creates and makes maps is called a cartographer.
IMPORTANCE OF MAPS TO GEOGRAPHERS
1. Maps show direction to travelers
They guide people on foreign land to reach their destination.
2. Maps show political boundaries of different countries.
3. They are very essential in any field work or study. Example agriculture,
military.
4. Maps provide the basis for geographical description of a region. Example
climates, vegetation, relief, economic activities.
5. They provide much information on the nature and distribution of geographical
phenomena. Example, settlements, population.
6. Maps are used in various projects, like land use planning, roads and railway.
7. They provide valuable data for statistical analysis.

LIMITATIONS OF USING MAP ON GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

i. Maps are selective; because not all land information may be shown on a map.
ii. Maps are very expensive to produce.
iii. Maps are conventional, i.e. they represent land information by means of
convectional symbols and signs.
iv. Some maps provide outdated information.
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v. Preparation of map takes so long period of time.

ESSENTIALS OF A MAP
 Are the information shown on the map to enable the reading and
interpretation of the geographical information of an area represented.
 If a map lacks these essentials, it is difficult to read and interpret clearly the
geographical information of an area.
 They are also known as supportive content or characteristics of a good
map. this include;
1. TITLE
 It is the heading of the given map. A title tell what the map is all about.
There are two types of map title; a) General title:
– This shows a general content of an area. Example, Tanzania, Arusha.
b) Specific title:
– This shows the specific content of an area represented. For example,
Arusha population distribution, Mikindani Salt mining.
2. KEY
 This is the list of all convectional symbols and signs shown on the map
with their meanings.
 The convectional symbols and signs stand for actual features on the map.
3. MARGIN OR BOUNDARY
 It is the frame of the map. It shows the end of the mapped area
understudy.
4. NORTH DIRECTION INDICATOR
 This shows the north direction of a map when it was printed. This enables
the map user to know the important directions of the mapped area like
EAST, SOUTH, NORTH and WEST.
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5. SCALE
 This is the ratio of distance, between the map distance and the actual

𝑴𝒂𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑴. 𝒅)

ground distance.

Scale =
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
(𝑮. 𝒅)
Other essentials of a Map
6. LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE
 These are North-South and West-East imaginary lines used to locate
position and time.
7. GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM
 This is a network of vertical and horizontal lines used to fix positions. The
vertical lines are referred to as the EASTINGS- as they are numbered
Eastward while the horizontal lines are called the NORTHINGS since they
are numbered Northward.
8. DATE OF COMPILATION
♥ This indicates the date on which the map understudy was developed. It
helps the interpreter to realize whether the map understudy is updated or
outdated.

MAP SCALES
 Maps are drawn on different scale sizes depending on the sizes of flat
bodies and the amount of contents to be shown on the maps.

Types of Scales
1. LARGE SCALE
Characteristics of Large
scale – The scale size may range from 1:1000 to
1:25,000.
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– They represent small area of land, example schools, villages etc.

– The map contents are enlarged and they are clearly seen.
– The maps using large scale are more detailed.
– One unit on the map represents very few units on actual ground distance.
2. MEDIUM SCALE
Characteristics of Medium
scale – The scale size ranges from 1:50,000 to
1:250,000.
– It represent areas which are neither too large nor too small.
– The maps using this scale shows moderate contents.
– Medium scale is used to show districts, town, regions, or province. – Most
topographical maps use medium scale.
3. SMALL SCALE
Characteristics of Small
scale – The scale size ranges from 1:125,000 and
above.
– It covers large area of land, like a continents, countries or the whole world.
– The maps shows less details (only large towns are shown).
– The contents are not clearly shown.
– Features are greatly reduced.
– Also, features appear very small.
– Most atlas maps use small scale.

 The higher the denominator, the smaller the scale.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING SCALE

– There are three ways of expressing map scales;
1. Representative Fraction (R.F).
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 The relationship between the map distance and the actual ground distance
is expressed in Fraction.  For instance; 1:50,000 or 𝟏 . 𝟓𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
2. Statement/Verbal Scales.
 The map distance and the actual ground is expressed or stated in words on
the map.
 For instance; ‘One centimetre on the map represents one kilometre
on the ground’ (1km to 1km).
3. Linear/Graphical/Metrical/Bar Scale
 The ratio of distance between the map and the actual ground distance is
expressed by the use of a line.

 The linear scale is divided into two parts, primary which is placed at the
right handside of the linear scale and secondary section placed at the left
handside of the linear scale.
SCALE CONVERSION
1) Converting R.F scale to Statement scale.
 Example 1: change 1:100,000 to statement scale.

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

Thus if; 100,000𝑐𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑚

100,000𝑐𝑚 =? 𝑦
100,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚𝑦
=
100,000𝑐𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚

𝟏𝒌𝒎 = 𝒚
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Hence, one centimetre on the map represents one kilometre on the

actual ground distance.
 Example 2: change 1:200,000 to statement scale.

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

If, 1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚

? 𝑥 = 200,000𝑐𝑚
200,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚𝑥
=
100,000𝑐𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚
𝟐𝒌𝒎 = 𝒙
Hence, one centimetre on the map represents two kilometre on
the actual ground distance.
 Example 3: change 1:50,000 to statement scale.

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

Thus if; 100,000𝑐𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑚

50,000𝑐𝑚 =? 𝑦
100,000𝑐𝑚𝑦 50,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
=
100,000𝑐𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚
𝟎. 𝟓 𝒌𝒎 = 𝒚
Hence, one centimetre on the map represents a half-kilometre
on the actual ground distance.

2) Changing statement scale to R.F scale.

 Example 1: One centimeter represents sixty-kilometre.

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

60𝑘𝑚 =? 𝑦 𝑐𝑚
60𝑘𝑚 × 100,000𝑐𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
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6,000,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
𝑦 = 6,000,000

𝟏
Thus, R.F scale = 1:6,000,000 or ⁄𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Example 2: one centimeter represents 0.75 kilometres

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

0.75𝑘𝑚 =? 𝑦 𝑐𝑚
0.75𝑘𝑚 × 100,000𝑐𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
75,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
𝑦 = 75,000
𝟏
Thus, R.F scale = 1:75,000 or ⁄𝟕𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Example 3: one centimeter represents two kilometres.

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚
Solution

2𝑘𝑚 =? 𝑥 𝑐𝑚
2𝑘𝑚 × 100,000𝑐𝑚 = 𝑥𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
200,000𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚 = 𝑥𝑐𝑚𝑘𝑚
𝑥 = 200,000
𝟏
Thus, R.F scale = 1:200,000 or ⁄𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

3) Conversion of Statement scale to Linear scale.

Procedures
i. Draw a straight line and divide it into two portions, primary on the right
and secondary on the left.
ii. Primary indicates distances exceeding a kilometre or length in full
kilometre. iii. Secondary indicates distances which are less than a
kilometre.
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iv. At every 2cm intervals, write the value of the distance, which is 1, 2, 3,
4….kilometres.
 For example: if 1cm represents 0.5kilometres, how many centimetres
represents 1km?
Solution
If, 1cm = 0.5km

0.5𝑘𝑚𝑦 1𝑘𝑚𝑐𝑚 1𝑐𝑚 × 10 10𝑐𝑚

?y = 1km

= = = = 2 𝑐𝑚
5𝑘𝑚 0.5𝑘𝑚 𝑜. 5 × 10 5
0.

∴2cm represents 1km.

 So, 1cm representing 0.5km, is shown as follows on a linear scale.

4) Conversion of Linear scale into Statement scale

 Example, change the linear scale below into statement scales

SOLUTION
Steps to follow;
a. Measure the length of the linear scale from the 0 mark towards the
right.
b. According to the given linear scale, one interval represents 1km, and
the interval is 2cm long.
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∴2 centimetre represents 1km /i.e. 1cm represents 0.5km

5) Conversion of linear scale to R.F scales.

Solution Steps to follow;
a) Convert the linear scale into a statement scale first; that is, measure
the length of the linear scale to get statement scale.
b) Convert the statement scale into an R.F scale (it is ≡ 𝑡𝑜 # 2).

USES OF SCALES
i. Scale is used to calculate distance on maps.
ii. Scale helps in calculating /computing areas on maps. iii. It is
used to plot cross section or relief section.
iv. It is used to show the relation between map distance and the actual ground
distance.
v. Used to calculate gradient/slope and vertical exaggeration.
vi. Helps in determining the cost of road construction with respect to its
distance.

IMPORTANCE OF SCALE
1. It enables the map user to interpret the amount of contents shown on the
map.
2. Scales helps to determine the map size to be drawn.
3. Scales control the amount of contents to be shown on the map.
4. Help the map user to know the area size of the land represented.
5. Scales help in map reduction and enlargement.

LOCATION OF POSITION ON MAPS

 The most common methods of giving position include;
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A. PLACE NAME
 By this method, the names of the places on the map may be used to give
position, example; Arusha, Moshi, Mbeya.
B. LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE
 These are North-South (Longitude) and West-East (Latitude) imaginary lines
used to locate position and time on maps.
C. GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM
 This is a network of vertical and horizontal lines drawn on a map to help in
fixing position.
 The vertical lines are called EASTINGS and they are numbered Eastwards
while the horizontal lines are called NORTHINGS since they are numbered
Northward.
 Grid reference has six (6) digits, 3 Eastings and 3 Northings, and we
normally use the formula “ENO” in finding Grid reference for Eastings and
Northings respectively.

i. The grid reference of point A= 105215

ii. The grid reference of point B= 110210
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iii. The grid reference of point C= 130205

iv. The grid reference of point D= 095200
v. The grid reference of point E= 092198
vi. The grid reference of point F= 115190

D. BEARING AND DIRECTION

 Direction: is the course upon which something is moving to or pointing to.
 Bearing: is the expression of direction using degrees of an angle.

Bearing is measured by degree clockwise from 0000 towards 3600. But

instead of bearing, the same position can be shown by directions such as
EAST, NORTH, WEST or SOUTH.
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Sixteen Cardinal Points

HOW TO MEASURE FORWARD BEARING

a. Identify the two points.
b. Join them with straight pencil line.
c. Draw a North direction on the second point (on from).
d. Measure the angle by using a protractor.
e. State the bearing in terms of degree and direction (if asked).
o Example 1: find the bearing of Songea from Mtwara.
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It is 2780 (WNW).
o Example 2: find the bearing of Subira from Mlimani

The bearing of Subira from Mlimani is 3150

o Example 3: what is the bearing of Mwanza to Rukwa?

The bearing of Mwanza to Rukwa is 235.50

BACK BEARING (BB)

 BB is the opposite of the forward bearing. It is taken from the object to the
observer; while FB is taken from observer to the object.
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 Example, in the diagram below, Back bearing of stationery from studio is 740
while the Forward bearing is 2540.

 Principally;

If the FB <180º.
– Back bearing (BB)= FB+/- 180º – BB = FB+180º

–BB = FB - 180º If the FB >180º

Importance of Back bearing reading
 BB is important for checking the accuracy of forward bearing. It is
checked by noting the difference in degrees between the BB and FB.

MEASUREMENTS ON MAP
– Measurements on maps can be calculated by using map scales.
I. DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
 Distance: is the length between two points such as road, railway or river.
A. STRAIGHT DISTANCES
 For all straight distance use a RULER directly to obtain the distance.
Procedures;
i. Identify the two points on the map (A & B).
ii. Take a ruler or any other straight object and find the distance, e.g. 12cm.
iii. Convert the measurements by using a linear scale or other map scales.
E.g. 1:50,000………(1cm to 0.5km)
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12𝑐𝑚 × 0.5𝑘𝑚
∴ =6km
1𝑐𝑚

iv. Write the units such as KM, MILE, FEET, etc.

B. CURVED DISTANCES
→ Are the distances which are not straight. The following tools are commonly
used; a. A pair of divider
b. A piece of paper
NB: a pair of divider and a paper, are used for measuring short straight
distance. This is done by dividing the points to be measured and adding
up all the measures. Finally a map scale is used to convert the
measurements.
c. A piece of string/a thread: (in using this, spread the thread along the
linear feature, and convert the map distance obtained into ground
distance).
 For example; if the scale is 1:50,000, and the map distance obtained is 20cm,
then;-

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚1𝑘𝑚 × 50,000𝑐𝑚

SOLUTION

=
? = 50,000𝑐𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚
𝟏
∴ 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝒌𝒎
𝟐
1
𝑘𝑚 20𝑐𝑚×
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑖𝑓 1𝑐𝑚= 2
2
= 1⁄ 𝑘𝑚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒎
20𝑐𝑚 = ? 1𝑐𝑚
∴ 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒎
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II. AREA MEASUREMENTS

♥ To determine area size of the Earth’s surface from topographical map,
consideration should be made on whether the area is Regular or Irregular.
A. REGULAR (AREAS) FIGURE
 To calculate the area size of the definite shape, apply a relevant mathematical
formulae.
B. AREAS OF AN IRREGULAR FIGURE
 To calculate the area of an irregular figure, we use the following methods;
I. GRID/SQUARE/TRACING METHOD
 The method is used if the given topographical map has grid lines forming
perfect square on the face.
 To calculate the area, identify the margins of the area to be calculated, then
find;
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2
 For example;
Calculate the area covered by lake, in the map shown below;

Full squares
Half squares
The map scale e.g. 1:50,000
Formular: Full square + 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠
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Solution
– Full square = 2
– Half square = 12
– Area = Full square + 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠
= 2 + = 8 squares.
2

– Scale: 1:50,000

1𝑘𝑚 = 100,000𝑐𝑚1𝑘𝑚 × 50,000𝑐𝑚

If, 1km = 100,000cm, then;

=
? = 50,000𝑐𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚
𝟏
∴ 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝒌𝒎
𝟐
Area of Single Square;
2cm

Then, 𝑖𝑓 1𝑐𝑚 =2𝑘𝑚

1

2cm = ?
= 1km.

𝑘𝑚 ×
Thus, Area= S2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝟖𝒌𝒎𝟐

II. STRIPPING METHOD

 This involves the drawing of the number of strips into an irregular figure. This
method is less accurate.
 Usually the WIDTH of each strip measures 1cm.
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STEPS:
a) Draw the strips of 1cm width within the figure.
b) Measure the length of each strip.
c) Add the length of each strip to obtain the total length of all strips.
d) Convert the length and width of all strips into KM. Solution

i. Length= 6𝑐𝑚 + 8𝑐𝑚 + 9𝑐𝑚 + 8.5𝑐𝑚 + 7𝑐𝑚 + 4.5𝑐𝑚 = 𝟒𝟑𝒄𝒎

Scale=1:50,000………1cm = km

Then, if
1 1
1𝑐𝑚= 2𝑘𝑚 43𝑐𝑚 ×2𝑘𝑚
43𝑐𝑚= = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟓𝒌𝒎 ? 1𝑐𝑚

ii. Width = 1cm

1𝑐𝑚 =𝑘𝑚
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑖𝑓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒌𝒎
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1𝑐𝑚 = ?

∴ 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑳 × 𝑾
e) Calculate the total area

21.5𝑘𝑚 × 0.5𝑘𝑚 = 10.75𝑘𝑚2

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒌𝒎𝟐

III. DIVISION/GEOMETRICAL METHOD

• This method involves drawing of different geometric figures such as
triangle, rectangle, circles or squares to calculate the total area.
• Find the area of each figure and then add them together to obtain the total
area in kilometre square.

STEPS
i. Identify the figure/area for measuring.
ii. Draw various figures like triangles, rectangles, etc. and name them
either A, B, or C. iii. Calculate the area of each figure so as to obtain the
general total of the area calculated.
iv. Add the area of the figures (A+B+C).
v. Express the area into 𝑘𝑚2.
THE GRADIENT/SLOPE
 Gradient is the steepness of the slope (degree of steepness).
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OR
 Gradient is a ratio between vertical increase and horizontal distance

𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 /𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝑰/𝑽𝑪

(equivalent).

𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑶𝑹 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =

𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕/𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑯𝑬/𝑯𝑫

 The units in HEIGHT are in METERS. The Vertical increase (VI) is obtained

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒓 (𝑯𝑪) − 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒓 (𝑳𝑪)

by taking the;

 Gradient is expressed as a fraction whose numerator is one. Example

𝟏
𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝑿.
𝑿
Procedures
a. Identify the two points given.
b. Join the two points with straight pencil line.
c. Measure the distance (map distance), and then convert to actual ground
distance so as to get Horizontal equivalent.
d. Calculate the difference in height between the two points using contours.
o Example 1: if the highest contour between two points is 1800m and the
lowest contour is 550m while the horizontal distance is 25km, find the
gradient.
Solution
Data:
– Highest contour (HC) = 1,800m
– Lowest contour (LC) = 550m
– Horizontal distance (HD/HE) = 25km – Gradient =?
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Procedures
 Change 25km into Metres
1km=1000m
25km = ?
= 25 x 1000m = 25,000m
𝑽𝑰
 Gradient =
𝐻𝐷
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎 − 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝒎
=
𝟐𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏
= =
𝟐𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎

𝟏
∴ 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = ⁄𝟐𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 20.
o Example 2: if the HC=700; LC=100, and HE = 4000m. Find the gradient.

𝑽𝑪
Solution

𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑯𝑫
𝟕𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟔
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = =
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝟔
𝟔
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = = 𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝟔. 𝟔𝟔
𝟒𝟎
𝟔
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Thus, the gradient is 1 in 6.66.

METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEF FEATURES

ON TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
 RELIEF: refers to the ups and downs of the land.
 Relief features can be shown in different ways as shown below;
1. TRIGONOMETRICAL STATION:
 It is a fixed surveying station that shows the exact height of a physical
feature
from the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
 In a map, it is represented by a triangle followed by a number of the exact
height from the sea level.
2. SPOT HEIGHT
 It is a dot of height, number or a smaller circle with dot and number at its
center indicated on a topographical map to show the highest relief feature
represented.

3. FORM LINES
 Are lines drawn on a map to join points of equal/approximately the same
height above the sea level.
 The principles of form lining and contours is the same, but; contours are
darker in colour and their value are shown WHILE from lines are faint
and may not have values written on them.
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 Also, form lines are not always plotted at fixed intervals. (Actual height is
approximated with the help of spot height).

4. HACHURES
 These are short, broken lines that are used to show relief. Hachures are
indicated by lines of different thickness towards the sloped land.
 Where the slope is steep, the lines are thick and close together but
where the slope is gentle the lines are thin and wide apart.
 It is used on small scale maps to show minor features like craters and
depressions.

5. LAYER COLOURING/TINTING
 It is the method of showing relief by different colours (tints). For example,
BLUE colour represents water bodies; WHITE colour represents areas
covered by ice/glaciers; GREEN colour represents lowland such as plain,
PURPLE colour represents mountains/highlands.
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 Also, a colour can be used for each band of elevation which represents a
definite elevation range.

6. HILL SHADING
 This method indicates relief by a shadow effect. In this case, steep slopes
are thickly shaded while hilltops, plateaus and plains as well as valley
bottoms are lightly shaded.

7. BENCH MARK (BM)

 These are wall indication or poles showing altitude (Height) in relation to
the sea level.
8. CONTOUR LINES
 These are lines drawn on a map to join all areas with equal height above
the sea level.
 It is the most common method of showing relief and elevation on a
standard topographic map.
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PROPERTIES OF THE CONTOURS

1. Contours are numbered in either meter or feet.
2. Contours never cross, or intersect each other.
3. Contours are drawn in a specific intervals.
4. The contour numbers are placed in the midst of broken contour line.
5. They are closely spaced-when representing steep slope features. Example
like those of a hill, a cliff or mountain.
6. They are widely spaced-when representing a gentle slope or low land.
7. They form closed loop when showing a hill, plateau, an escarpment or
depression (rounded contours).
8. Contours never cross large water bodies. Example Ocean or lake.
9. They form a V-shaped appearance when pointing uphill, representing a
VALLEY, or when they cross a river.
10. They form a U-shaped appearance when pointing downhill, representing
features such as a SPUR; and a V-shaped appearance pointing downhill for
a RIDGE.
LIMITATIONS OF CONTOUR METHOD
a. Contours fails to show some of the highest heights due to the limitation of
the vertical interval used. (Thus spot height or trigonometrical station is
used).
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b. Contours fails to show some other landforms on map. Example coral reefs
and outcrop rocks.
c. It is mostly not used to show relief on small-scale maps as it may obscure
some details.
INTERPRETING THE PHYSICAL/RELIEF FEATURES REPRESENTED BY
CONTOUR LINES
A. HILLS
♥ Refers to an upland or highland usually from 500m to 1000m above sea level.
♥ A hill is usually round in shape and is not as high as a mountain. It is
represented by circular contour lines which are circular rings.
♥ Some hills are irregularly shaped, due to erosion, presence of a massive
rock outcrop or other geomorphological processes.

B. VALLEYS
♥ It is an elongated depression sloping towards a drainage basin such as a
sea, lake or swamp.
♥ The contour lines that are used to show a valley form a V-shaped; and the
SHARP end of a ‘V’ points towards higher ground or upwards.
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C. A RIDGE
♥ It is a narrow and elongated hill with steep slopes on all sides. The contour
lines for a ridge run almost parallel to each other, and form a V-shape,
pointing downhill.
♥ Some ridges are watersheds that separate rivers that flow in different
directions or parallel to each other.
♥ The upper part of a ridge is called a BROW. Before reaching the top of the
ridge, there is usually a section of gently sloping land called a
SHOULDER.

D. AN ESCARPMENT
♥ This is an area of highland with a very steep slope on one side and a gentle
slope on the other side.
♥ The steep side is known as the scarp side and the gentle side is the dip
slope.
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E. PLATEAU
♥ This is an upland covering a considerably large area, and whose top surface
is almost level.
♥ This area is usually bordered with a steep slope, descending to the lowland.

F. SPUR (Interlocking spurs)

♥ It is a prominent projection of raised land from higher ground (such as a
mountain side) into lower land.
♥ The spur is indicated by contours forming V-shape, and the apex of V-
shape points to the lower ground. Usually a spur is broader than a ridge.
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G. SADDLE, PASS AND COL

♥ These refers to the place between two peaks of the mountains, hills or
mountain ranges.
• COL: is a small depression on a ridge or in a hilly area, which is located
between adjacent peaks of hills.
• SADDLE: is a broad flat col in a ridge between two mountain summits.
The term saddle can be used interchangeably with col, since their
difference is only in terms of width.
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• PASS: is a fairly narrow but deep gap in a mountain range or between

high hills in lower land. It is like a deepened saddle or col.

H. CLIFFS
♥ A cliff is a large steep side area of a rock or mountain normally at the edge
of rivers or oceans.
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♥ It creates waterfall. The contour lines are drawn very closely and
sometimes appear as one line.

I. DEPRESSION
♥ It is a part of the surface that is lower than all the parts surrounding it.

J. PLAIN
♥ This is a continuous tract of relatively flat land covering a broad area of
lowland. Some plains may be raised but the slopes are very gentle.
♥ On topographical maps, plains are shown by contours that are very widely
spaced.
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K. WATERSHED
♥ A watershed is a line separating (headstreams) river sources that flow to
different river systems.
♥ On a ridge, it would be the crest of that ridge. It is not indicated on maps,
but it’s position can be determined by examining the direction of flow of
rivers originating from that highland.

L. AN OUTCROP ROCKS
 This is a mass of rock that is exposed to the surface. Where it occurs, a
particular symbol is drawn in the position where it is found.
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DRAWING A CROSS SECTION

 CROSS SECTION: refers to relief layout (profile) of landform between given
points on the contoured map.
 There are two types of Relief section;
a. RELIEF CROSS PROFILE: is a profile which is less detailed.
b. ANNOTATED RELIEF SECTION: is a profile which is more detailed. It
indicates details like rivers, mountains, forests.

PROCEDURES/STEPS IN DRAWING A CROSS SECTION

i. Identify the two points given, example A to B.
ii. Join the two points with straight pencil line. iii. Put a
straight edge of a paper on line AB.
iv. Mark and label all contours and other features crossed by line between
two points.
v. Draw a horizontal line (X-axis) and vertical line (Y-axis).
NB: X-axis line- should be equal to the length of line AB on the edge of the
paper.
vi. Choose the suitable vertical scale by observing the vertical interval.
NB: Vertical interval- is the difference between two successive contours.
vii. Mark and label the two perpendicular vertical lines starting from the
LOWEST contour to the HIGHEST contour.
viii. Join all points obtained and mark all important features, and shade the
diagram.
ix. Write the title of a cross section.

Example: draw a cross section from point A to B.

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A CROSS SECTION FROM POINT ‘A’ TO ‘B’

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VISIBILITY/INTERVISIBILITY
 Refers to the situation or possibility of two pints on the contoured map to be
seen from each other.
 This can be judged after drawing a cross/relief section. Therefore there may
be intervisibility or not.
FACTORS AFFECTING VISIBILITY
a) Relief, e.g. mountain, hills or ridges
b) Vegetation, e.g. presence of forest hinders visibility.
c) Tall buildings.
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION (V.E)
 It is the relationship between vertical scale and horizontal scale.
OR

𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 (𝑯. 𝑺)

 It is the number of times the horizontal scale greater than the vertical scale.

𝑽. 𝑬 =
𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 (𝑽. 𝑺)
𝑵𝑩: HS is usually given on the map. VS is derived from contour interval.
Example1: Find the vertical exaggeration when map scale is 1:50,000 and
the contour interval is 100m.
Solution
Given;
– H.S = 1:50,000 – Contour
interval = 100m – V.S =?
But; V.S = Contour interval
Thus, Contour interval 100m------change it into centimetres
1𝑚 = 100𝑐𝑚
= 100 × 100𝑐𝑚 = 𝟏𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
100𝑚 ?
V.S = 1:10,000
𝑯.𝑺
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Formula: V.E=
𝑽.𝑺

50,000𝑐𝑚
= =5
10,000𝑐𝑚
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝟓.
QUIZ

1. Calculate the V.E of a cross section whose H.S is 1:30,000 and V.S is
1:10,000.
2. What would be the V.S if the V.E is 0.15 and H.S is 1:100,000?
3. Find the H.S when the V.S is 1:100 and the V.E is 0.25.

MAP INTERPRETATION
 Map interpretation entails two basic processes of map reading and map
analysis.
 Key items include; climate, human activities, relief, population distribution,
settlements, drainage, vegetation and rocks.

I. HUMAN ACTIVITIES
– Human activities are of two types;
a. Social activities: are the activities conducted to meet social
development like Education, health care, security etc.
b. Economic activities: are the activities conducted to meet economical
needs. These are;
1. TRADE
® Trade may be identified by the presence of township, the presence of
transportation networks with settlements along the linear feature like a
road, railway etc.
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® Also the presence of trading centres like markets indicates trade

activities.
2. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
® Presence of big towns, factories, high concentration of roads and railways,
and raw materials represent manufacturing as an economic activity. 3.
TOURISM
® Presence of historical sites, museum, national parks, wildlife reserves and
other tourist attractions like crater, coral reefs, and beaches represents
tourism as an economic activity.
4. FISHING
® Presence of water bodies such as oceans, seas, lakes, dams and rivers.
5. AGRICULTURE
® Presence of farms, plantations, estates, irrigation schemes and different
crops represent agriculture as an economic activity.
6. LUMBERING
® Presence of saw mills, forests, woodland, scattered trees and paths or
minor roads ending into the forest represents lumbering or bee keeping.
7. PASTORALISM
® Presence of grassland with scattered settlements, scrubs, waterholes,
ranches, cattle dips and markets, and veterinary centers represent
pastoralism.
8. MINING ACTIVITY
® Presence of mineral symbols, salt works, quarries and different type of
minerals represent mining as an economic activity.

II. DESCRIBING RELIEF OF THE AREA

 RELIEF: refers to ups and downs of the landscape. It shows the landform of
the Earth such as plateaus, plains, hills, valleys, depressions and
escarpments.
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 It is determined by the help of contours. It is important to be specific when

describing the relief.
PROCEDURES
i. Study the map provided carefully and give general description of the
whole area. Example, the area is mountainous/hilly/plateau or
plain.
– State the highest and lowest parts of the area.
– State whether there is steep/gentle slopes and state the
direction of slopes.
ii. Identify the landforms present in the area such as hills, mountains,
valleys or slopes.
– The distribution of landforms should be described using either
bearing, direction, naming or grid reference. Example: map of
Mafinga;
– The major landform is plateau which is formed at the
altitude of 1500m-2000m. This is indicated by the contours
which are far apart at the centre.
– The area also is characterized by the presence of river valley
with gentle slope. The area also contain ridges, spurs and
hills at the Southern part of the map.

III. DESCRIBING VEGETATION

 VEGETATION: refers to the total plant cover in the area. For example, forest,
thicket, scrub, scattered trees or grassland. Vegetation cover can be either
natural or artificial.
• Natural vegetations: are identified by irregular pattern on a map.
• Artificial vegetations: are identified by regular pattern on the map face.
Procedures
i. Read the key of the map on the part of vegetation symbols.
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ii. Survey the whole map sheet, and identify all type of vegetation and note
the dominant vegetation.
iii. State how vegetation is distributed, e.g. even, uneven, dense, few or no
vegetation.
iv. Mention the type of vegetation and their location---using grid reference,
direction etc.
Example: Map of Kigoma
– Vegetation is the total plant cover of the area. The mapped area has
uneven vegetation distribution such that there are places with many
vegetation, few and no vegetation. The main type of vegetation
found at the area are forest, scrubs and scattered trees.
– The vegetation distribution in the area can be described as follows;
• The Eastern part of the area is covered with forest which is mostly
woodland.
• The central part of the mapped area, Western and Northern part
have little vegetation cover.
• Also, in mapped area there is swampy vegetation and some areas
there are no vegetation at all.
• Scrubs are widely found in the South East, and forest in the South
around 420400.

IV. DESCRIBING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

 Population distribution: refers to the variation of the number of people
over spaces.
 It is influenced by the economic function of the area, accessibility to
transport, water supply and relief of the area.
Procedures
i. Define population distribution
ii. Say whether it is even or uneven
iii. Mention area with many, few and no population.
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iv. Suggest reasons for having such distribution.

Example: West Hai map
– The population distribution of West Hai is unevenly distributed such
that there are areas with many people, few and no people at all.
– The population is distributed in the following areas;
 In the Southern part of the area, there is dense population. The
reason may be due to good soil or reliable rainfall.
 South West and Western part of the mapped area have sparsely
population due to the presence of steep slope and a swamp.
 The Northern part have no settlement/population at all, this is
due to presence of steep slope which discourage settlement.

V. DESCRIBING CLIMATE OF THE AREA

 CLIMATE: is the average weather condition experienced in an area over a
long period of time.
 In order to depict the climate of a given area on the map, consider the
following; 1. LATITUDE:
 For instance, if the area understudy is located between 0º-5º N or S of
the Equator; that is EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.
 Areas away from the Equator around 6º – 10º have short rainy season
and long dry season, which suggest the TROPICAL CLIMATE.
2. ALTITUDE:
 Altitudes and relief features such as high mountains or mountain ranges
and plateaus have Orographic rainfall and forests making
MOUNTAINOUS CLIMATE.
3. WATER BODIES:
 Presence of salty lakes, seasonal swamps, seasonal streams (rivers) and
boreholes suggest low rainfall hence TROPICAL CLIMATE.
 While large water bodies and abundance permanent streams suggests
EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.
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4. NATURAL VEGETATION:
 Presence of dense forests indicates heavy rainfall, thus EQUATORIAL or
MOUNTAINOUS CLIMATE.
 Presence of scrubs, thickets and grassland indicates low rainfall hence
TROPICAL CLIMATE.
 Scrubs and short grasses indicates DESERT or SEMI-DESERT.
5. CROPS:
 For instance, coffee, tea, sugarcane and banana require much high
rainfall, thus suggest EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.
 Millet, sisal and sorghum are seasonal crops and require much less
rainfall, hence TROPICAL CLIMATE.

VI. DESCRIBING SURFACE ROCKS

 The following are some of the guides used to suggest the type of surface
rocks present in an area.

a. Landforms:
– Presence of volcanic landforms on the map, e.g. crater, caldera,
geysers, volcanic mountains and hot spring suggest -Igneous rock.
– Presence of erosional and depositional features like depressions, dry
valleys, seasonal streams and sand dunes suggest –Sedimentary
rocks.
– Presence of coral reefs and cliff suggests –Sedimentary rocks.
b. Vegetation:
– Presence of thick forests and crops like coffee and tea indicates fertile
soil originated from –Igneous rocks
– Poor vegetation cover, for example grass and few trees suggest
either – Sedimentary or Metamorphic rock.
c. Drainage:
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– Radial drainage pattern suggest- Igneous rocks.

– Dendritic drainage pattern suggest granite rock, i.e. - Igneous
rocks.
– Surface drainage e.g. swamps and marshes suggest occurrence of
impermeable rock, thus may be Igneous or Sedimentary rocks.

VII. DESCRIBING SETTLEMENT IN THE AREA

 Settlement: refers to the habitable area where human beings live and
perform their activities such as mining, agriculture and trade.
TYPES OF SETTLEMENT
i. Urban settlement: are commonly found in district headquarters and
regional administrative centres and along transportation routes.
ii. Rural settlement: this develops in villages and majority of people
engage in agricultural activities.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
 There are common three forms of settlement patterns which are;
1. Nucleated settlement pattern;
 This represents a settlement around nuclear such as market, mining
which act as nuclear.

2. Linear settlement pattern;

 This is the settlement along communication routes such as roads,
railways; or along river valley or coastline.
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3. Sparsely settlement pattern;

 This is the scatteredness of people in a site. It shows few houses which
are far apart.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE LOCATION OF SETTLEMENT

1) Availability of water supply
2) Social facilities e.g. education, religious services, health and piped water.
3) Economic activities such as agriculture, mining, trade.
4) Relief
5) Administrative function
6) Transport and communication.

VIII. DESCRIBING DRAINAGE PATTERNS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

® Drainage: is the outflow of water from an area through the system of
natural streams.
® Drainage also includes other features such as lakes, sea, rivers, swamps,
canals and ponds which are related to water. The features of drainage are
also called hydrographic features.
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SWAMPS
 This is a waterlogged area with its associated vegetation. They are common
where the ground forms a shallow depression.
TYPES OF SWAMPS
1. MANGROVE SWAMPS: these are found near the coastal shore of the
sea, where there is shallow parts of seashore and around sea inlets.
2. TREE SWAMPS: are waterlogged areas that have a significant number
of trees and some other smaller plants growing in them.
3. PAPYRUS SWAMP: this is dominated by papyrus reeds commonly
found on plateaus and lowlands.
4. MARSH: is an area that experiences temporary flooding, and the land
is usually wet and poorly drained. If it is found near the coast, it is
called a salt marsh.
5. A BOG: is a spongy waterlogged area with a surface layer of decaying
vegetation.
6. SEASONAL SWAMP: are very shallow basins and flat areas of ground
that become flooded during the rainy period but dry up during the dry
season.
7. A POND: is a small mass of stagnant water that is commonly found
along courses of small rivers. They are shown as dark blue areas on
topographical maps.
8. A WATERHOLE: is a shallow and broad pit that traps rainwater. They
can be natural or constructed by people to provide drinking water for
livestock or wild animals. It is shown by letter “WH”.
9. A BOREHOLE: is a deep hole drilled in the ground for the purpose of
obtaining underground water. It is shown by initials “BH”.
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TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS

 The types of drainage patterns are determined by rock structures, its
hardness and slope as well as erosive power of the river system. The
common types of drainage patterns are;
1. DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN
This is drainage pattern which looks like the trunk of the tree and its
branches or like a leaf with its vein.
It has many tributaries converging to the main river at an acute angle.

2. TRELLISED PATTERN
This is a pattern which occupies the shapes of tributaries converging to
the main river at almost right angle.
It develops in areas with hard and soft rock.

3. RECTANGULAR PATTERN
It is a pattern which is similar to the trellised, but its tributaries join
the main river at a right angle.
It is common in areas which are faulted. Example, Bamenda highlands
in Cameroon.
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4. RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

It is a drainage pattern whose tributaries flow (diverge) outward from the
center of highland like a volcanic dome to different directions down the
slopes.
It forms a shape of spokes of a round wheel.

5. CENTRIPETAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

This is the drainage pattern whose tributaries flow from different direction
converging (meet) at the center of low land such as a lake or swamp.
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How to describe the drainage of the Area

Procedures:
i. Define drainage/drainage pattern
ii. Say whether the area is well drained or not.
iii. Mention important/large rivers iv. Identify the direction of flowage
v. Conclude with the pattern of drainage.
Example: West Hai Map
– Drainage pattern refers to the arrangement/layout of streams in a
certain area. The mapped area seems to be well drained.
– This is because there are many and permanent streams and absence
of swamps. Most streams are permanent and flow from North to
South of West Hai.
– The dominant drainage pattern in the area is radial drainage which
starts from the volcanic cone (036190) outwards.

REFERENCES
1. Msabila, D.T. & Kinunda, J. E. (2010). Comprehensive Geography for
Secondary schools: Form 3. Dar es Salaam: Nyambari Nyangwine Publishers.
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2. Mzezele, S. & Kibuuka, P. (2011). Geography in Focus: Form 3. Dar es

Salaam: Oxford University Press.
3. TIE, (2016). Geography for Secondary schools: Form Three. Dar es Salaam.
4. Kamili, Z. (2010). Practical Geography Alive. KOT PUBLISHERS. OTHERS
“Standard five Geography book”
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End ……
© Sir. Ruben V. Mgeni 2021…!!!