2025
Under supervision of
Dr. Fathi Zaki & Dr. Roaa Mubarak
Faculty of Engineering, Helwan university
Electronics & Communication Department.
AN AUDIO AMPLIFIER
Electronics 3 course project
Table of Contents 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Team Members............................................................................................................................................2
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................3
Circuit Analysis.............................................................................................................................................4
Function of the Circuit.................................................................................................................................6
Frequency Response & Gain calculations.....................................................................................................7
Power Amplifier...........................................................................................................................................9
SImulation & PCB layout............................................................................................................................10
Team Members 2
TEAM MEMBERS
NAME ID SECTION
Shahd Amr Ahmed 222326762 4
Sandy Samy Nassef 222326924 3
Joudi Khaled Khalil 222326751 2
Abstract 3
ABSTRACT
This project presents the design and implementation of an audio amplifier circuit
intended for low-level audio signal amplification and sound output through a
speaker. The system begins with a microphone input stage that converts sound
waves into an electrical signal. A biasing resistor is used to properly operate the
microphone, while a passive high-pass filter removes unwanted DC components
from the input signal.
The filtered audio signal is then amplified using a 741 operational amplifier
configured with an adjustable gain control, allowing flexibility in output amplitude.
The amplified signal is coupled to a Class AB power amplifier stage implemented
using complementary transistors, providing sufficient current drive and improved
efficiency for speaker operation while minimizing crossover distortion.
To enhance functionality, the circuit includes an LED level indicator driven by an
LM3915 integrated circuit, which visually represents the output signal level. The
circuit operates with a dual power supply to allow symmetrical amplification of the
audio signal.
Overall, the designed audio amplifier demonstrates the fundamental principles of
audio signal conditioning, amplification, and power driving, making it suitable for
applications such as small audio systems, educational demonstrations, and basic
sound amplification projects.
Circuit Analysis 4
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
1. Microphone (MIC): Captures sound waves and converts them into small
electrical signals.
2. Microphone Bias Resistor (6.8KΩ): This resistor provides the required
DC bias for the microphone to operate correctly and produce a stable
output signal.
3. Input Coupling Capacitor (10 µF): This capacitor blocks DC components
from the microphone output and allows only the AC audio signal to pass to
the next stage
4. High-Pass Filter (10 µF Capacitor and 68 KΩ Resistor): These
components form a passive high-pass filter that removes unwanted DC
offset and very low-frequency noise from the microphone signal.
5. Operational Amplifier (IC 741): The 741 op-amp is configured as an
inverting amplifier to amplify the low-level audio signal from the
microphone.
6. Gain Control Potentiometer (50 KΩ): This potentiometer allows adjustment of
the amplifier gain, providing control over the output audio level.
7. Output Coupling Capacitor (100 µF): This capacitor blocks DC voltage
from the op-amp output and allows the amplified AC audio signal to pass to
the power amplifier stage.
8. Diodes (D4, D5, D6): These diodes provide proper biasing for the Class
AB output stage and help reduce crossover distortion between the positive
and negative signal cycles.
9. Driver Transistors (2N3904 and 2N3906): These small-signal transistors
act as driver stages, preparing the signal to drive the power transistors
efficiently.
10. Power Transistors (BD135): The BD135 transistors
operate in a push-pull Class AB configuration to amplify
the current and provide sufficient power to drive the
speaker
Figure 1 BD135
11. Emitter Resistor (220 Ω): This resistor improves thermal stability and limits
current in the output transistor stage.
12. Speaker: The speaker converts the amplified electrical audio signal into
audible sound
13. LED Level Indicator (LM3915): The LM3915 IC drives a series of LEDs to
visually indicate the output signal level.
Circuit analysis 5 .
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
14. LEDs (D1–D13): The LEDs display the audio signal level in a bar/dot
format, providing a visual indication of output amplitude.
15. Input Resistor (1 KΩ), Biasing Resistor (150 KΩ): Additional resistors are
used for biasing, signal conditioning, and proper operation of the power stage.
16. Power Supply (+15 V and −15 V): A dual power supply provides positive and
negative voltages required for proper operation of the op-amp, transistor stages, and
LED indicator circuit.
Function of the Circuit 6
FUNCTION OF THE CIRCUIT
1. Signal Pickup: The microphone captures sound waves and converts them
into an electrical signal. A biasing resistor ensures proper operation of the
microphone.
2. Filtering: A passive high-pass filter removes unwanted DC components
from the input signal, allowing only the AC audio signal to pass.
3. Amplification (Op-Amp stage): The filtered signal is amplified using a
741 operational amplifier, with adjustable gain control to set the desired
output amplitude.
4. Power Amplification (Class AB Stage): The amplified signal is fed to a
Class AB power amplifier implemented with complementary transistors,
providing sufficient current to drive the speaker efficiently while minimizing
crossover distortion.
5. Output Indication: An LED level indicator, driven by an LM3915 IC,
visually represents the output signal level.
6. Dual Power Supply Operation: The circuit uses a dual power supply to
allow symmetrical amplification of the audio signal.
7. Sound Output: The amplified audio signal drives the speaker, producing
audible sound suitable for small audio systems or educational
demonstrations.
Frequency Response & Gain calculations 7
FREQUENCY RESPONSE & GAIN CALCULATIONS
1. Frequency Response:
1.1 Lower Cutoff Frequency ( FL ): The lower cutoff frequency is mainly
determined by the coupling capacitors and the input resistance they see.
1.1.1 Input coupling capacitor (Mic → Op-Amp)
Input capacitor: Cin= 10 μF
Equivalent input resistance: Rin= 68 KΩ
1
Lower cutoff frequency: FL1 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑖𝑛𝐶𝑖𝑛
1
FL1 =
2𝜋 𝑥 68000𝑥10𝑥10^−6 ≈ 0.23 Hz
1.1.2 Output Coupling Capacitor (Op-Amp to Power Amplifier)
Output capacitor: Cout= 100 μF
Input resistance of power amplifier: R ≈ 150kΩ
1
Lower cutoff frequency: FL1 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑖𝑛𝐶𝑖𝑛
1
2𝜋 𝑥
FL2=
150000𝑥100𝑥10^−6
≈ 0.01 Hz
1.2 Upper Cutoff Frequency ( FH ): The upper cutoff frequency is mainly limited by
op-amp 741 gain-bandwidth product,Internal transistor capacitances.
For Op-amp 741: GBW≈1 MHz
𝐺𝐵𝑊
If the closed-loop gain is Av: FH=
1 𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑣
F H= =20 kHz
50
Figure 2 Frequency Response
Frequency Response & Gain calculations 8 .
2. Gain Calculations:
2.1 Op-Amp Voltage Gain: The op-amp is configured as an inverting amplifier with
variable gain.
Feedback resistor(potentiometer): Rf=0→50 kΩ
Ground resistor: Rg=1 kΩ
𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑔
Voltage gain: Av= -
0
Minimum Gain: Av(min)= - =0
1𝑘
50𝑘
Maximum Gain: Av(max)= - =50
1𝑘
2.2 Power Amplifier Gain: The push-pull Class AB transistor stage provides:
High current gain
Voltage gain ≈ 1
Its main role is power amplification, not voltage amplification.
2.3 Overall Voltage Gain:
Av(total) ≈ Av(op-amp) × Av(power)
Av(total)≈0→50
Power Amplifier 9
POWER AMPLIFIER
The power amplifier in this circuit is a Class AB amplifier.
Class-AB Output Stage Operation:
The output stage of the designed audio amplifier operates in Class AB mode. In this mode, each output
transistor conducts for more than 180° but less than 360° of the input signal cycle. This behavior occurs
because the output transistors are slightly forward-biased even in the absence of an input signal, which
creates a small overlap in the conduction region around the zero-crossing point of the waveform. As a
result, crossover distortion is significantly reduced compared to Class B operation
1. Complementary Push-Pull Configuration: The amplifier employs a complementary
push-pull output stage. BD135 power transistors are used as the output devices, while
2N3904 (NPN) and 2N3906 (PNP) transistors function as the driver and pre-driver stages.
During operation, the NPN transistor amplifies the positive half-cycle of the input signal,
whereas the PNP transistor amplifies the negative half-cycle. This complementary action
improves efficiency and allows the circuit to deliver higher output power to the load while
maintaining good linearity.
2. Biasing Method and Class-AB Confirmation: Class AB operation is achieved through a
diode biasing network consisting of diodes D4, D5, and D6, connected between the bases
of the driver transistors. Each diode provides an approximate forward voltage drop of 0.6 V,
resulting in a total bias voltage of about 1.8 V. This bias voltage ensures that both output
transistors remain slightly ON at zero input, establishing a small quiescent current.
Consequently, crossover distortion is minimized, confirming that the output stage operates
in Class AB rather than Class B mode.
Advantages of Class AB Amplifiers
Efficiency: Class AB amplifiers are more efficient than Class A amplifiers because the
transistors are not conducting all the time. They offer a good balance between efficiency
and linearity.
LM 3915 Block diagram 10
LM 3915 Block Diagram
SImulation & PCB layout 11
SIMULATION & PCB LAYOUT
Figure 3 Simulation on Proteus
Figure 4 3D Visualizer Figure 5 PCB Layout