9.

1 Biomass Production – Simplified

• Biomass is energy from plants, formed using sunlight through photosynthesis.

• It includes plants, trees, crops, grasses, algae, and animal/human waste.

• Biomass stores energy in the form of sugar (carbohydrates).

• It is a renewable and widely available energy source.

• Biomass energy can be used in two ways:

o Direct methods

o Indirect methods

Direct Methods (Using biomass directly)

Sources of raw biomass:

1. Forest wood and waste

2. Agricultural crops and leftovers

3. Food waste from homes

4. Industrial waste

5. Animal and human waste

6. Special energy crops

Problems with direct use:

• Low energy

• Hard to store and transport

• Causes pollution

• Needs pre-treatment for better use

Indirect Methods (Convert biomass into fuel or electricity)

1. Thermo-electrical conversion

o Biomass is burned to make steam

o Steam runs turbines to make electricity or heat

o Less pollution than fossil fuels

2. Biomass to fuel

o Useful when petrol is costly or unavailable

o Two types:
 ▪ Thermo-chemical:

▪ Gasification: makes gas using limited oxygen

▪ Pyrolysis: makes oil without oxygen

▪ Biological:

▪ Fermentation

▪ Anaerobic digestion: makes methane gas

Efficiency depends on:

• Moisture in biomass

• Air supply

• Temperature and pressure

• Exhaust gas temperature

9.5 Gasifier and Their Classifications – Simplified

• A biomass gasifier is a chemical reactor where biomass is converted into producer gas
(syngas) through physical and chemical processes.

• There are two main types of gasifiers:

1. Fixed bed gasifier

2. (Other type not mentioned here)

1. Fixed Bed Gasifier

• In this type, biomass moves with or against the gas flow (steam, air, or oxygen).

• It is easy to operate and causes less erosion.

• Based on how air or oxygen is introduced, fixed bed gasifiers are classified into:

(a) Downdraft Gasifier

• Air flows downward through the biomass.

• Single throat type – used for stationary use.

• Double throat type – used for varying loads and vehicles.

(b) Updraft Gasifier

• Air flows upward from the bottom.

• Gases exit from the top.

(c) Crossdraft Gasifier

• Air flows from one side across the gasifier.

 • Very simple design, suitable for small output.

All other gasifier types are variations of the above three types.

9.7 Updraft Gasifiers – Simplified

• Updraft gasifier is the oldest and simplest type.

• Air enters from the bottom, and gas exits from the top (counter-current flow).

• Fuel is fed from the top and moves downward.

• Air/steam enters from the bottom and moves upward.

Gasifier Zones (Bottom to Top)

1. Combustion zone – Near the grate (bottom), combustion takes place.

2. Reduction zone – Above combustion zone, reduction reactions happen.

3. Pyrolysis zone – Feedstock is broken down by heat from below.

4. Drying zone – Moisture is removed at the top.

• Volatile gases, tar, etc., leave from the top.

• Ash is removed from the bottom.

Applications

1. Packaged boilers

2. Thermal fluid heaters

3. Aluminium melting/annealing furnaces

4. Fryers and roasters

9.8 Downdraft Gasifier – Simplified

• In downdraft gasifiers, air and fuel move in the same downward direction.

• Air is introduced at or above the oxidation (combustion) zone.

• Gas is removed from the bottom.

• Biomass (e.g., wood waste) is fed from the top.

Gasifier Zones (Top to Bottom)

1. Drying zone – Biomass loses moisture.

2. Pyrolysis zone – Volatile gases are released.

3. Combustion zone – Burning occurs, producing heat.

 4. Reduction zone – Gases are formed (producer gas).

• Air is injected into the throat (narrow section).

• High temperature in the throat cracks tars and oils.

• Producer gas exits from the bottom.

• Start-up time is shorter than updraft gasifiers (5–10 minutes).

Applications

1. Continuous baking ovens (bread, biscuits, paint)

2. Rotary batch ovens (for bread)

3. Dryers and curing units (tea, coffee, mosquito coil, paper)

4. Boilers

5. Thermal fluid heaters

9.9 Cross-Draft Gasifier – Simplified

• In cross-draft gasifiers, the ash bin, combustion, and reduction zones are separated (unlike
updraft or downdraft gasifiers).

Design Features

• Air enters from the side, and gas exits from the opposite side.

• Biomass moves downward through different zones:

o Drying

o Pyrolysis

o Combustion

o Reduction

o Ash collection

Fuel Requirements

• Suitable for low-ash fuels like:

o Wood

o Charcoal

o Coke
Gas Properties

• Produces high carbon monoxide, low hydrogen, and low methane when using dry fuel like
charcoal.

• Works best with dry air blast and dry fuel.

Structure

• Usually a vertical cylindrical vessel with varying cross-section.

• Biomass is fed from the top at intervals and moves down slowly, forming producer gas and
ash.

9.11 Use of Biomass Gasifier – Simplified

• Biomass gasifier output is used for:

o Cooking

o Drying

o Water heating

o Steam generation

o Powering engines (mechanical/electrical)

• For engines, the gas must be cleaned using:

o Cyclone

o Scrubber

o Filter

• Spark-ignition engine: Runs on producer gas alone.

• Compression-ignition engine: Runs in dual-fuel mode (diesel + producer gas).

o Only 25% diesel is used compared to full diesel use.

• India is a leader in biomass gasification.

o Thermal systems: 60,000 to 5×10⁶ kJ/h

o Electrical systems: 3 to 500 kW

• Largest system:

o Output: 5×10⁶ kJ/h (thermal), 500 kW (electric)

o Biomass used: Wood blocks (500 kg/h)

o Gas produced: 1,250 m³/h

9.11.1 Liquid Fuels – Simplified

 • Liquid fuels are harder to produce than gases.

• Methanol: Made from wood/straw via gasification + chemical synthesis.

• Ethanol: Made from crops (sugarcane, maize, cassava, tapioca) by fermentation.

o Used by blending with petrol.

o Useful where land is surplus (e.g., Brazil).

o Not practical for India due to limited land.

• Photosynthesis:

o Produces oxygen and removes CO₂.

o Supports life by producing carbohydrates.

o Two types:

▪ Oxygenic (plants, algae, some bacteria)

▪ Anoxygenic (some bacteria – no oxygen produced)

10.2 Biogas and Its Composition – Simplified

• Biogas is a clean, low-cost, non-polluting fuel.

• It contains 50–70% methane (CH₄) – an inflammable gas.

• Methane has 1 carbon and 4 hydrogen atoms (CH₄).

• Biogas is also known as:

o Sewerage gas

o Marsh gas

o Gobar gas

o Sludge gas

o Bioenergy

Biogas Properties

• Heat energy: ~9,000 kcal/m³

• Used for: cooking, heating, lighting

• Calorific value: 20 MJ/m³

• Ignition temperature: 650°C to 750°C

• Burns with blue flame, like LPG

• Efficiency: 60% in a biogas stove

• 20% lighter than air

Biogas Composition (Table 10.1)

S. No. Substance Symbol % Composition

1 Methane CH₄ 50–70%

2 Carbon dioxide CO₂ 30–40%

3 Hydrogen H₂ 5–10%

4 Nitrogen N₂ 1–2%

5 Water vapour H₂O 0.2–0.3%

6 Hydrogen sulphide H₂S Minute traces

Fuel Equivalence of 1,000 ft³ Biogas

• = 600 ft³ natural gas

• = 4.6 gallons diesel

• = 5.2 gallons petrol

• = 6.4 gallons butane

Biogas Production Example

• From 4 cows/buffaloes and a 5-person family

• Produces 175 ft³ biogas/day

• Enough for cooking and lighting

Additional Benefits

• No irritating smoke like traditional biomass

• Less effort in cleaning utensils

• Leftover digested material is enriched manure

10.3 Anaerobic Digestion – Simplified

• Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that occurs without oxygen, producing biogas
(mainly methane CH₄ and carbon dioxide CO₂).

• Steps in Methane Gas Production:

1. Hydrolysis – Organic matter (plants, animal/human waste) is broken into small

molecules like sugar.
 2. Conversion to organic acids.

3. Conversion of organic acids into biogas (methane).

10.3.1 Process Stages of Anaerobic Digestion

The process has four main stages:

1. Hydrolysis

• Breaks large organic molecules into smaller parts (sugar, fatty acids, amino acids).

• Helps bacteria access energy.

• Produces hydrogen and acetate (used by methanogens).

• Larger molecules must first be broken down before use.

2. Acidogenesis

• Fermentative bacteria break down remaining components.

• Produces volatile fatty acids, ammonia, CO₂, H₂S, and by-products.

3. Acetogenesis

• Simple molecules from acidogenesis are further digested.

• Produces more acetic acid, CO₂, and hydrogen.

4. Methanogenesis

• Methanogens convert products from earlier stages into:

o Methane (CH₄)

o Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

o Water (H₂O)

• Sensitive to pH changes.

Overall Chemical Reaction:

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 3CO₂ + 3CH₄

• Digestate: Indigestible material + dead bacteria left after digestion.

10.4 Biogas Production – Simplified

Biogas is produced by biodegradation of organic material in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic).

This happens naturally or in a biogas plant, where waste is digested in an airtight container called a
digester.

10.4.1 Construction Parts of Biogas Plant

A biogas plant has five main parts:

1. Mixing Tank

o Above ground

o Mixes cow dung and water (1:1 ratio) to form slurry

2. Digester Tank (Fermentation Tank)

o Underground cylindrical chamber

o Made of bricks, sand, cement

o Has two chambers with a separator

o Inlet and outlet pipes for slurry flow

o Biogas is formed here by fermentation

3. Dome or Gas Holder

o Hemispherical top of the digester

o Stores generated biogas

o Two types:

▪ Fixed Dome (cement and bricks)

▪ Floating Dome (steel drum that moves with gas pressure)

4. Inlet Chamber

o At ground level

o Feeds slurry into the digester

o Bell-mouth shape

5. Outlet Chamber

o Removes used slurry

o Flows to a separate pit

Other Important Components

• Gas Outlet Pipe and Valve

o On top of the dome

o Connects gas to stoves, lights, etc.

o Flow is controlled with a valve

• Foundation

o Base of the digester

 o Made of cement and bricks

o Must be strong and waterproof

10.4.2 Working of Biogas Plant

1. Slurry Preparation

o Mix cattle dung and water (1:1) in mixing tank

o Pour slurry into digester via inlet

2. Fermentation in Digester

o Anaerobic digestion starts

o Biogas forms and collects in the dome

3. Gas Pressure Effect

o Gas pushes slurry out to inlet and outlet chambers

o Slurry level drops in digester, rises in chambers

4. Overpressure Condition

o If gas valve remains closed, gas escapes via chambers as bubbles and froth

5. Gas Measurement

o Increase in slurry level in chambers indicates gas volume

6. Gas Usage

o Open valve to use gas

o Slurry level in digester rises, lowers in chambers

7. Continuous Operation

o Remove used slurry from outlet

o Add fresh slurry regularly

o More gas needed → more slurry input

o Digester size affects gas output

10.5 Benefits of Biogas – More Simplified

1. Gives Energy

o Used for cooking, lighting, heating, and electricity

o Saves diesel and other fuels

2. Makes Good Fertilizer

o Waste turns into strong manure

 o Manure keeps more nitrogen than normal compost

3. Improves Health

o Less smoke, so fewer breathing and eye problems

o Kills germs and worms in waste

o Food is cleaner and easier to digest

4. Saves Time and Effort

o No need to collect firewood

o Easier cooking and cleaning

o Homes are cleaner and smoke-free

5. Protects Nature

o Saves trees

o Stops soil erosion

o Helps grow more food for animals

6. Fights Global Warming

o Cuts use of fossil fuels

o Reduces harmful gases like carbon dioxide and methane

10.6 Factors Affecting Biogas Plant Model Selection – Simplified

1. Cost

o Should be low for building and maintenance

o Affordable for users and society

2. Simple Design

o Easy to build, use, and repair

o Helpful where skilled workers are few

3. Durability

o Should last long

o Important where skills and materials are limited

4. Input Type Suitability

o Design should match raw materials (e.g., straw needs batch system)

5. Usage Frequency

o Depends on how often gas is used and waste is added

o Affects size and type of plant design

11.1 General – Simplified

Ocean energy can generate electricity in three main ways:

1. Tidal Energy

o Water is stored during high tide in a reservoir behind a dam

o Released during low tide to turn turbines and generate electricity

o Needs at least 4 meters of tidal height difference

2. Wave Energy

o Ocean wave movement rotates underwater turbines like windmills

o Electricity is generated from this motion (explained in Chapter 12)

3. Ocean Thermal Energy

o Uses the temperature difference between warm surface water and cold deep water

o Similar to geothermal energy (explained in Chapter 13)

11.2 Tidal Energy Resource – Simplified

• Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon (and slightly by the sun)

• High tide = Water rises

• Low tide = Water falls

• Happens twice a day, causing large water movements = Tidal energy

How it works:

• Dams near shores store water at high tide

• Water is released during low tide

• Flow turns turbines connected to generators → Electricity

Tide types:

• Spring tides: Highest tides when Earth, moon, and sun are aligned

• Neap tides: Lowest tides when Earth, moon, and sun form a right angle

Tide cycle:

• Moon pulls ocean water = Water rises (high tide)

• As moon moves away = Water level falls (ebb cycle)

11.7 Tidal Power Basin – Simplified

Tidal power can be harnessed using a basin system, where part of the sea is enclosed using dams.
Water is let into the basin during high tide and released during low tide to generate power using
turbines. Since tidal height varies, power also varies. To manage this, different types of basin systems
are used:

11.7.1 Single-Basin System

A single reservoir (basin) is used with a dam and sluice gate. Two types:

1. One-way system:

o Basin filled during high tide

o Power generated during low tide as water flows out

o Generates power for about 5 hours per cycle

2. Two-way system:

o Power generated both when water flows in (high tide) and out (low tide)

o Needs larger turbines

o Still gives intermittent power and uses only ~50% of tidal energy

11.7.2 Two-Basin Systems

• Uses two basins to provide more stable power.

• Turbine valves are adjusted to match changing water levels.

• Helps reduce variation in power output between high and low tides.

• Drawback: Still can't handle big differences between spring and neap tides.

Solution:

• Combine with pumped storage plant

o Extra power used to pump water to an upper reservoir

o Later used to generate power when tidal power is low

o Expensive setup

Grid connection alternative:

• When tidal power is available, reduce steam power plant usage

• Saves fuel but needs steam plant capacity equal to tidal plant → costly

Alternative Operation:

• Two basins near each other work in turns

o One fills and generates during rising tide

o Other generates during falling tide

 o Can use one or two powerhouses

o Allows continuous power generation

11.7.3 Co-operating Two-Basin Systems

• Two basins at different heights connected by turbine

• Both basins also connected to the sea

Working:

1. High tide fills high-level basin

2. When sea level drops, sluice gates close to keep water in

3. Water flows from high basin to low basin via turbines → power generation

4. When sea level drops below low basin level, water from low basin released to sea

5. Cycle repeats with next tide

• Turbines between basins and between basin and sea

• Allows continuous power

• Disadvantage: High construction cost due to more structures needed

11.8 Turbines for Tidal Power – Simplified

Tidal power plants face changing water levels (head), so turbines must work efficiently under varying
conditions.

Types of turbines used:

1. Kaplan turbine –
Works well under variable head conditions.

2. Propeller turbine –
Blade angles can be adjusted for better efficiency.

3. Bulb-type reversible turbine –

Works both as a turbine (generating power) and a pump (pushing water), with good
efficiency.

11.8.1 Bulb-Type Turbine

• Design:
A steel shell holds the generator, attached to the turbine runner.
The turbine is placed inside a tube and is always underwater.

• Working:

o During low demand (rising tide) → acts as a pump

 o During high demand → works as a generator

o Adds valuable stored energy to the system

• Used at: La Rance Tidal Power Station (France)

• Drawback:
Difficult maintenance because water flows around the turbine constantly.

11.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Power – Simplified

Advantages:

1. Large scope due to 2/3 of Earth covered by water

2. Tides are cyclic and easily predictable

3. Higher energy density than other renewable sources

4. Clean energy with minimal land use

5. Inexhaustible source

6. Environment-friendly, no greenhouse gases

7. High efficiency (~80%)

8. Low running and maintenance cost

9. Long lifespan of tidal power plants

Disadvantages:

1. High capital cost

2. Few suitable coastal locations

3. Sea waves can damage equipment

4. Affects aquatic life and fish migration

5. Limited generation—only twice daily

6. Short generation duration (~12 h 25 min/day)

7. Not yet commercially viable; needs tech improvement

11.10 Problems Faced in Exploiting Tidal Energy – Simplified

1. Tidal energy sites are far from consumption areas – transmission is costly and difficult.

2. Power supply is intermittent; not always available when needed.

3. High construction and maintenance cost.

4. Alters ecosystems – affects vegetation, erosion, flushing, and causes winter icing.

5. Requires specific conditions – at least 7 m tidal amplitude and semi-diurnal tides.

6. Barrages are expensive and affect areas upstream and downstream.

7. Only produces power for ~10 hours a day.

8. Affects bird feeding (mudflats submerged), fish migration, and other wildlife.

9. Existing designs don’t produce large amounts of electricity.

10. Power may be generated when electricity demand is low.

11. Few suitable coastal sites for construction.

12. Barrages may block water outlets; installing locks is slow and costly.

13. Fish can die due to turbine blades; fish ladders aren’t fully effective.

14. Wildlife habitats may be destroyed.

15. Changes in tidal levels can affect navigation, recreation, flood risks, and marine life.

16. Not suitable for inland areas – only usable on coastlines.